INDUSTRIAL-ARTS  AND 
EYOCATIONAL  EDUCATION 
JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


EDGERTON 


SOUTHERN  BRANCH 

DIVERSITY  Of  CALIFORNIA 

LIBRARY  ' 

^S  ANGELES,  6aUF. 


Industrial-Arts  and  Prevocational 
Education 

in  Intermediate  and 
Junior-High  Schools 


By 

A.  H.   Edgerton 

Assistant  Professor  of  Vocational  Kducation 
Indiana  University 


BRUCE  -  Ml  LVVAlht  I 


The  Bruce  Publishing  Co. 
Milwaukee  Wisconsin 

5197 


Copyright,  1922. 
A.    H     EDGERTON. 


P  fluted   in  U.   S.  A. 


*\S 


PREFACE 

It  is  hoped  that  both  the  general  and  detailed  ex- 
planations of  actual  procedure  involved  in  several  of 
these  courses  and  projects  may  aid  instructors  and  ad- 
ministrators  in  determining-  the  relative  possibilities  in 
n  the  different  plans  for  realizing  common  aims  or  pur- 
poses. Numerous  requests  for  such  specific  information 
during  the  past  few  months  have  made  it  evident  that 
there  is  an  increasing  demand  for  this  type  of  material 
when  interpreted  in  terms  of  the  results  obtained  and 
the  means  employed.  In  order  that  all  concerned  might 
derive  the  most  help  from  these  valuable  reports,  it  has 
been  decided  to  present  them  in  connection  with  the 
findings  and  implications  resulting  from  this  investiga- 
tion of  379  intermediate  and  junior-high  schools. 

This  and  other  recent  investigations  clearly  show 
that  tradition,  rather  than  present-day  need,  still  too 
largely  determines  the  purpose,  content,  and  method  of 
the  industrial  subjects  in  the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth 
years.  Nevertheless,  these  suggestive  reports  of  the 
rapid  developments  in  intermediate  and  junior-high 
schools  are  so  many  evidences  of  a  serious  attempt  to 
prepare  our  pupils  for  efficient  service  and  more  intelli- 
gent citizenship.  Today,  as  never  before,  it  is  evident 
that  the  larger  values  in  industrial  or  manual  arts  edu- 
cation can  not  be  realized  alone  from  the  mere  doing 
and  making  of  things,  where  skill  in  the  manipulation 


06 


*J 


PREFACE. 

of  materials,  tools  and  machines  is  the  main  objective. 
If  industrial  activities  are  to  play  a  large  part  in  meet- 
ing the  problems  of  general  education,  is  it  not  reason- 
able to  expect  them  to  share  the  responsibility  for  help- 
ing boys  to  develop  perspective  and  thinking  power  in 
Connection  with  real  life  situations  ?  The  importance 
of  skill  and  knowledge  should  be  recognized  as  a  factor 
in  general  education ;  however,  should  not  these  be  vital- 
ized through  such  concrete  experiences  as  will  stimulate 
thought  and  actually  make  a  difference  in  the  lives  of 
our  pupils  as  members  of  families  and  of  vocational  and 
civic  groups? 

In  many  of  the  upper  grade  curricula,  the  time 
allowed  for  information  and  shopwork  has  been  quite 
limited.  However,  many  schools  are  attempting  to  re- 
present several  types  of  industrial  activities  in  order 
I  fiat  their  pupils  may  have  a  more  complete  understand- 
ing of  industry  and  likewise  be  prepared  to  make  intelli- 
gent choices  of  both  educational  opportunities  and  life 
occupations.  Some  administrators  and  teachers  have 
had  the  courage  to  consider  the  school  shops  and  local 
enterprises  somewhat  as  field  laboratories  where  pupils 
may  investigate  important  methods,  products,  condi- 
tions, and  requirements  in  the  various  divisions  of  in- 
dustry. As  a  result  of  these  studies,  which  are  un- 
limited  in  possibilities  are  brought  in  contact  not 

only  with  materials,  tools,  machines,  and  processes  of 
manipulation  but  also  with  worthwhile  information  con- 

4 


- 


PREFACE 

cerning  the  work  and  the  workers  in  each  activity  repre- 
sented. 

Although  recent,  the  rapid  growth  of  intermediate 

schools  or  junior-high  schools  represents  a  serious  at- 
tempt to  assist  all  children,  regardless  of  their  social 
status  or  possible  life  work,  in  meeting  the  new  and 
changing  demands  for  many-sided  service.  This  grow- 
ing tendency  to  respect  individual  differences  by  provid- 
ing partial  differentiation  (from  one-third  to  one-hall' 
of  the  school  time)  during  the  seventh,  eighth  and  ninth 
grades,  assumes  that  pupils  should  he  provided  with  the 
hinds  and  qualities  of  knowledge  and  skill  (or  dexler- 
ify)  which  will  help  them  In  establish  Ihose  habits,  alli- 
hides-,  and  appreciations  that  contribute  mosi  to  their 
daily  conduct  as  intelligent  citizens,  consumers,  and 
producers. 

The  selected  reports  on  a  number  of  carefully 
planned  and  successfully  developed  industrial-arts 
courses  and  projects  were  prepared  by  teachers  and 
supervisors  having  somewhat  varied  points  of  view  and 
results.  These  contributions  were  collected  by  the  in- 
dustrial-Arts Committee  of  the  National  Society  for  the 
Study  of  Education  and  are  published  in  this  usable 
form  by  special  request.  The  various  statements  of  ex- 
perience encountered  in  offering  the  different  activities 
to  meet  the  needs  and  interests  of  early  adolescence 
should  prove  suggestive  to  all  concerned. 


PREFACE 

While  it  is  encouraging  to  note  these  marked  im- 
provements  in  methods  and  procedure,  it  certainly 
would  be  unwise  at  this  time  to  consider  any  stereotyped 
plan  as  more  than  tentative.  These  promising  results 
should  point  the  way  for  further  experimentation,  which 
is  certain  to  make  more  reliable  comparisons  and  meas- 
urements possible.  If  industrial-arts  courses  are  to  con- 
tinue  to  occupy  an  important  place  in  the  program  for 
general  education,  the  relative  possibilities  in  the  differ- 
ent plans  for  realizing  common  objectives  must  be  de- 
termined more  scientifically  than  heretofore.  Our 
future  practices  should  be  based  upon  established  fact,, 
as  far  as  possible,  rather  than  chiefly  upon  opinion, 
which  naturally  is  variable.  In  other  words,  there 
apparently  is  an  increasing  need  for  scientifically  deter- 
mining how  to  modify  our  present  methods  in  order  to 
have  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  year  boys  learn  most 
effectively  and  economically. 

Acknowledgment  is  gratefully  made  to  the  many 
teachers  and  administrators  who  so  generously  aided 
the  writer  in  securing  and  interpreting  data  for  the 
various  comparative  studies  included  in  this  publica- 
tion, and  also  to  those  who  have  cooperated  by  contrib-, 
uting  brief  reports  of  their  experience  in  successfully 
developing  courses  and  projects.  Words  of  thanks  are 
due  Mr.  L.  A.  Herr  of  the  Lincoln  School,  New  York 
City,  and  Mr.  G.  H.  Hargitt  of  the  Ben  Blewett  Junior 


PREFACE 

fligh  School,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  for  their  able  assistance 
in  selecting  and  adapting  these  reports.  The  writer 
also  is  under  obligation  to  those  whose  published  works 
have  been  referred  to  in  presenting  the  results  of  these 
investigations.  Especial  indebtedness  is  expressed  to 
Professor  F.  G.  Bonser  of  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University,  for  his  encouragement  in  formulating  and 
publishing  the  studies,  as  well  as  for  his  helpful  editor- 
ial criticism. 

A.  H.  E. 


CONTENTS 

I.     Meeting  Present-Day  Needs. 

page 

1.  Industrial     Experiences    as     a     Means    of     General 

Education     11 

2.  Current  Tendencies  in  Seventh,   Eighth,  and  Ninth 

Year    Courses    J  3 

3.  Types  of  These  Junior-High  School  Industrial-Arts 

Activities :     19 

(a)  Printing  and   Publishing    20 

(b)  Machine    Shop    22 

4.  Related   Information   as   a   Basis   for   Industrial    In- 

sight and  Guidance    24 

5.  Possibilities  in  Courses  for  Educational  and  Voca- 

tional   Guidance    26 

6.  Problems  in  the   Organization  and   Offering  of   In- 

dustrial   Activities    29 

7.  Improved  Methods  Needed  in  Many  Industrial  Arts 

Courses    32 

II.     Organizing    and    Conducting    Representative 
Activities. 

1.  Improvements  Result  from  Clear-Cut  Objectives..  39 

2.  Chief  Reasons  for  Offering  Try-Out  Courses 40 

3.  Determining  the   Important  Need  for  Courses    ....  41 

4.  Industrial  Work  as  a  Functional  Activity   42 

5.  Wide  Range  in  Content  of  Industrial  Courses:    ...  44 

(a)  Rural  industrial  Work   44 

(b)  Industrial-arts    courses    in    cities    46 

6.  General   Methods   in    Organizing   Try-Out    Courses  48 

7.  How   Industrial-Arts   Activities   are    Conducted    ...  51 

8.  Basis  of  Semi-Commercial  Work    52 

9.  Conducting  Representative  Industrial  Courses:    ...  55 

(a)  Types  of  Industrial  Arts  Conducted  in 
Smaller    Communities — Hastings,    N.    Y., 

as  an  Illustration   56 

(b)  Types  of  Junior-High  School  Industrial 
Activities  in  Large  Systems;  St.  Louis, 
Mo.,  (60),  and  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  (64), 
as  Illustrations. 

8 


CONTENTS 

III.     Methods  of   Offering  Courses   and   Projects. 

page 

1.  Problems    Respecting    Individual    Differences 68 

2.  Industrial-Arts    Instruction    and    Characteristics    of 

Early    Adolescence    69 

3.  Relation  of  Likes  and  Dislikes  to  Abilities  and  In- 

abilities          7  1 

.4.     Successes  and  Failures  Reveal  Aptitudes  and  Abil- 
ities           72 

5.     Methods   of    Offering    Industrial-Arts    Courses    and 

Projects 7  1 

(>.     Successfully  Tried  Unit-Courses  in  Large  and  Small 

Systems;     7S 

(a)  Eighth    Grade    Prevocatonal    or    Aptitude 
Courses    78 

(b)  Cabinet   Making   Organized    on    a   Useful 
and   Productive   Basis    80 

(c)  Practical  Course  in  Electricity 81 

(d)  Electrical   Construction  and   Repair   84 

7.     Suggestive   Types   of    Industrial-Arts    Projects   and 

Problems;    87 

(a)  The  Doll   House  as  a  School  Project    ...  87 

(b)  Projects  in  Concrete  Construction  94 

(c)  Model  Building  Construction  Projects    .  .  06 

(d)  Model   Garage   Construction    Projects    ...  9C> 

(e)  Ballot    Boxes    and     Folding    Booths    as 
Community   Projects    98 

(f)  Making    and     Operating     Radio     Instru- 
ments       100 

(g)  Model  Motor-Boat  Building  Projects....    102 
(h)      Teaching    Cooking    to    Boys    and    Furni- 
ture  Construction   to   Girls    103 


Industrial- Arts  and  Prevocational 

Education  in  Our  Intermediate 

and  Junior-High  Schools 

I.     Meeting  Present  Day  Needs 

Industrial  Experiences  as .  a  Means  of  General  Education. 

N  keeping  with  the  rapid  changes  in  our 
social  and  industrial  development,  there 
are  growing  evidences  that  an  increasing 
number  of  schools  are  seriously  attempting 
to  prepare  boys  and  girls  to  meet  the  new 
demands  for  efficient  service  as  members  of  families  and 
of  vocational  and  civic  groups.  Perhaps  the  most 
noticeable  indication  of  this  step  has  been  the  decided 
change  in  the  purpose,  content,  and  method  of  the  work 
now  offered  both  in  industrial  courses  as  a  means  of 
general  education  and  in  classes  for  specific  vocational 
(ducation.  Although  industrial  arts,  manual  arts,  or 
the  so-called  prevocational  courses,  and  strictly  voca- 
tional classes  do  aim  at  entirely  different  objectives, 
nevertheless  these  are  closely  related  in  so  far  as  a  com- 
plete program  for  a  democratic  education  is  concerned. 
In  fact,  the  success  of  vocational  education  partially  de- 
pends upon  the  previous  understanding,  insight,  and 
general  acquaintance  which  the  pupils  have  had  with  the 

11 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS    AND 

actual  conditions  and  relationships  in  the  industrial  and 
commercial  world.  Of  unquestionable  importance  is 
also  the  additional  fact  that  the  future  wage-earner  is 
a  consumer  as  well  as  a  producer ;  that  a  program  for 
public  education  which  neglects  to  help  individuals  to 
consume  intelligently  and  utilize  the  hours  of  leisure 
wisely  is  decidedly  undemocratic. 

Experience  has  taught  us  that  the  instruction  for 
those  who  are  preparing  for  direct  entrance  into  indus- 
trial pursuits  or  skilled  trades,  or  are  returning  for 
irade  extension  work,  should  help  them  to  acquire  a 
high  degree  of  manipulative  skill  or  add  to  their  tech- 
nical efficiency.  Recent  reports  from  intermediate 
schools  and  junior-high  schools  on  successfully  tried 
units  of  industrial  work,  some  of  which  will  be  given 
later  in  this  publication,  likewise  show  a  generally  ac- 
cepted belief  that  adolescent  pupils  might  well  gain  some 
knowledge  of  a  reasonably  wide  range  of  typical  indus- 
trial activities  by  having  first-hand  information  and 
experience  in  important  processes  of  manufacture, 
transportation,  and  commerce  as  a  foundation  for  their 
life  work.  In  the  former  case,  the  success  of  the  individ- 
ual depends  largely  upon  skill  and  knowledge  as  these 
relate  to  quality  and  quantity  production  in  some  form. 
In  the  latter  case,  the  "self -fin ding"  period  demands 
appreciative  insight  into  a  sufficient  number  and  variety 
of  representatwc  experiences  to  try  out,  discover,  and 

12 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

develop  ability  for  understanding  cmd  doi/ty,  as  well  at> 
managing  and  supervising  industrial  work. 

Current  Tendencies  in  Seventh,  Eighth,  and  Ninth  Year 

Courses. 

The  junior-high  school  or  intermediate-school  plan 
for  selecting  and  organizing  as  large  a  variety  of  pro- 
fitable experiences  as  possible  and  practicable  is  favored 
by  over  123  of  the  319  schools  which  have  recently  re- 
ported from  21  different  states  on  the  industrial  activi- 
ties now  being  oh'ered  to  their  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth 
grade  pupils.  Table  I  shows  that  practically  no  changes* 
are  claimed  in  the  purpose,  work,  and  method  of  the 
industrial  subjects  in  less  than  ten  per  cent  of  these 
so-called  reorganized  departments.  However,  these  same 
data  show  that  over  67  per  cent  of  the  379  schools  in 
question  not  only  include  notable  changes  in  their  upper 
grade  curricula  but  also  encourage  the  deferring  of 
definite  vocational  choices  as  long  as  is  possible.  The 
majority  of  the  school  organizations  which  favor  spec- 
ialization in  particular  differentiated  courses,  either  at 
the  beginning  or  at  the  end  of  the  first  term  in  the 
seventh  grade,  are  located  in  cities  of  over  200,000  popu- 
lation, indicating  that  the  chief  reason  why  nearly  one- 
third  of  these  schools  now  foster  courses  which  are  op- 
tional in  name  only,  and  actually  impose  early  choices 
on  the  adolescent  pupils,  may  be  due  to  the  administra- 
tive difficulty  involved  in  the  offering  of  a  greater  num- 
ber and  variety  of  activities  to  large  numbers  of  pupils. 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS   AND 

With  two  exceptions,  all  of  the  administrators  who  have 
commented  on  this  situation  state  frankly  that  they  are 
desirous  of  overcoming  this  apparent  undemocratic 
practice  just  as  soon  as  a  satisfactory  arrangement  can 
be  devised  to  meet  the  administrative  problem  of  pro- 
viding for  all  of  the  pupils. 

In  the  303  most  progressive  schools  reporting  on 
their  main  objectives,  the  equipment,  the  materials,  and 
the  technique  in  nearly  all  cases  are  chosen  from  import- 
ant industrial  pursuits,  but  with  few  exceptions,  the  rec- 
ognized purpose  of  the  work  and  study  in  these  courses, 
as  shown  in  Table  II,  is  not  primarily  to  produce  skilled 
workers  for  definite  vocations,  as  is  true  in  the  trade 
preparatory  or  trade  continuation  classes.  /The  main 
objective  is  rather  to  help  all  pupils,  regardless  of  their 
social  status  or  possible  lifework,  to  develop  industrial 
intelligence  and  thinking  power  in  connection  with  life 
situations.  Therefore,  each  activity  not  only  includes 
contact  with  typical  materials,  tools  and  machines,  but 
also  is  organized  with  the  intention  of  (1)  giving 
broader  appreciation  of  economic  production  and  de- 
manding more  respect  for  the  various  workers  and  their 
work;  (2)  preparing  for  more  intelligent  judgment 
and  use  of  industrial  products  and  service;  (3)  helping 
to  develop  insight  and  to  promote  more  efficient  produc- 
tion; (4)  offering  opportunity  for  testing  the  inter- 
ests and  aptitudes  of  students,  both  in  positive  and  nega- 

14 


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Table    II.     Main    Reason    Given    for    Offering    Industrial 
Activities  and  Related  Studies  in  Each  of  303  Inter- 
mediate and  Junior-High  Schools. 


Schools 


Chief  Emphasis  and  Claipas 


Number  Per  cent 


Contributing  to  the  general  experience, 
all-round  development,  and  industrial 
intelligence     - 

1.  Understanding  and  appreciating 
economic  production  in  some  form; 

2.  Gaining  respectful  attitudes  to- 
ward the  various  workers  and  their  work; 

3.  Having  ability  to  judge  industrial 
products'  and  do  simple  repair  and  con- 
struction work,  etc. 

Aiding  in  the  intelligent  selecticn  of  in- 
dustrial occupations  without  encour- 
aging   early    choices 

1.  Trying-out  individual  inclinations, 
interests,  and  capacities  for  industrial 
pursuits  through  typical  experiences; 

2.  Making  reliable  studies  of  the 
conditions,  demands,  and  opportunities  in 
related  occupations;  etc. 

Enriching  the  school  experience  cf  the 
pupils  through  concrete  situations... 

1.  Having  science,  mathematics,  and 
other  subjects,  profit  from  a  better  under- 
standing of  materials,  processes,  tools 
and  machines; 

2.  Providing  for  the  individual  needs 
of  pupils  who  would  not  remain  for 
academic  education  alone. 

3.  Helping  pupils  more  wisely  to 
choose  future  courses  in  secondary  and 
higher  education,  etc. 

Preparing  for  entrance  into  industrial 
vocations 

1.  Extending  the  try-out  activity  to 
meet  the  preparatory-vocational  needs  of 
pupils  who  find  it  necessary  to  leave 
school  with  a  minimum  of  preparation; 

2.  Offering  greater  opportunities  for 
commercial  experiences  in  shopwork  by 
cooperating  with  outside  productive  plants 
during  the  ninth  year,  etc. 


118 


39 


101 


78 


2G 


16 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

tive  ways,  in  order  that  worthy  needs  and  capacities 
may  be  developed  through  specific  training.  As  shown 
by  Table  1,  the  size  of  the  community  too  often  deter- 
mines the  extent,  nature,  and  effectiveness  of  the  activi- 
ties offered. 

That  the  actual  shopwork  in  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  these  large  and  smaller  secondary  schools  includes 
a  fairly  wide  range  of  experiences  is  shown  in  Figure  I. 
These  are  selected  in  the  main  from  present-day  occu- 


FIG.    1.      INDUSTRIAL   ACTIVITIES   OFFERED    IN    379   JUNIOR 

HIGH  SCHOOLS. 

17 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS   AND 

pational  pursuits,  such  as  printing  and  publishing,  car- 
pentry, cabinet  and  furniture  making,  wood  finishing, 
pattern  making,  foundry,  forging,  machine  shop,  sheet 
metal,  concrete,  photography,  electrical,  plumbing  and 
pipefitting,  automobile  operation  and  repair,  general 
construction  and  repair,  drafting,  and  the  like.  Be- 
cause of  the  advantage  in  having  several  kinds  of  ma- 
terials, tools  and  machines  available  in  one  room  for  im- 
mediate use,  and  also  because  of  the  extended  opportun- 
ity for  observing  many  distinct  types  of  construction 
work,  composite  workshop  units  frequently  has  been  de- 
veloped in  preference  to  a  number  of  separate,  special- 
ized shops,  especially  in  the  smaller  communities.  In 
either  case,  all  projects  and  problems  taken  up  in  con- 
nection with  each  one  of  these  activities  preferably  re- 
sult in  serviceable  and  useful  products.  As  the  occasion 
requires  it,  each  project  gives  some  consideration  to  the 
kinds  and  qualities  of  materials,  the  appropriate  de- 
sign and  construction,  the  processes  of  manufacture,  the 
applied  mechanics,  physical  sciences,  and  mathematics, 
and  the  industrial  history  and  civics  as  these  relate  to 
the  study  at  hand. 

Dr.  F.  G.  Bonser  of  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University,  has  referred  to  these  promising  courses 
happily  as  those  "following  the  elementary  school 
period,  well  adapted  to  the  interests  of  boys  during  the 
period  of  early  adolescence  when  more  intensive  studies 

18 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

of  industry  will  give  a  still  greater  opportunity  for 
testing  aptitudes,  and  develop  greater  intelligence  and 
appreciation  of  industrial  processes,  problems,  and  re- 
lationships. The  time  for  the  beginning  of  this  some- 
what differentiated  work  for  boys  is  probably  at  about 
the  beginning  of  the  seventh  grade.  The  rapid  develop- 
ment of  the  junior-high  school  or  intermediate  school 
bids  fair  to  see  such  courses  well  organized  for  seventh, 
eighth,  and  ninth  grades  with  from  one-third  to  one- 
half  of  the  time  devoted  to  the  study  of  industrial  pro- 
cesses, shopwork,  and  closely  related  subjects  for  those 
who  elect  such  courses,  the  remaining  time  applying  to 
the  usual  general  or  academic  subjects  for  these  grades. 
By  providing  partial  differentiation  in  these  years,  and 
at  the  same  time  keeping  much,  work  in  common,  the 
individual  interests  and  aptitudes  of  children  may  be 
respected  and  developed,  and  yet  the  democratic  char- 
acter of  the  whole  school  maintained/'1 

Types  of  These  Junior-High  School   Industrial-Arts 

Activities. 

The  following  types  of  eighth  grade  industrial- 
arts  courses,  which  first  were  inaugurated  three  years 
ago  as  a  part  of  the  junior-high  school  program  at  The 
Lincoln  School,  New  York  City.  -■  :!  and  incorporated  tin- 
most  successful  and  practicable  features  resulting  from 

•Bonser.    P.    G.     "New   Types   of   Industrial   Work   in    Schools"," 
Teachers  College  Record,  May  1,  1915.  Vol.  XVI. 

2These  statements  do   not  account  for  any  changes  which   have 
taken  place  since  October,  1920. 

19 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS   AND 

a  careful  study  of  over  300  progressive  junior-high 
schools  and  intermediate  schools  in  various  parts  of  the 
country,  are  examples  of  the  promising  organized  acti- 
vities already  described  in  some  detail  for  either  the 
large  or  small  school  system.  A  minimum  requirement 
of  three  hours  weekly  during  each  of  the  seventh,  eighth, 
and  ninth  years  is  found  to  be  a  reasonable  amount  of 
time  for  each  of  the  essentially  required  industrial  arts 
units  offered. 

Printing  and  Publishing. 
(Eighth  Year.) 
Some  freedom  has  been  allowed  all  pupils  in  choos- 
ing projects  to  be  printed.  However  each  pupil  is  re- 
quired to  gain  certain  understanding  ana  experience  in 
composition,  stone  work,  proof-reading  and  correcting, 
making-up  forms,  press  work,  distribution,  and  the 
other  important  processes  typical  of  the  job  print  shop. 
The  thought-provoking  problems,  which  are  usually  of 
a  semi-commercial  nature,  are  an  outgrowth  of  the 
school  or  individual  needs.  These  include  such  work 
as  the  printing  of  cards,  programs,  tickets,  and  straight 
matter  at  first;  while  later  the  artistic  arrangement  of 
headings,  spaces,  and  lines  is  applied  to  the  printing  of 

zNote — It  might  well  be  stated  that  the  accepted  policy  of  the 
whole  junior-high  school  was  then  that  "essentially  required 
courses  be  given  for  the  purpose  of  giving  valuable  contact  with 
different  types  of  world  knowledge  and  with  interesting  and 
profitable  activities;  and  that  such  courses  serve  as  a  basis  for 
purposeful  election  of  courses  in  the  senior-high  school:  but  that 
individual  students  be  permitted  to  discontinue  sequences  of 
courses  and  substitute  others,  with  the  permission  of  their 
advisers." 

20 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

announcements,    forms,    booklets,    school    publications, 
and  the  like 

This  is  followed  1>.\  problems  in  color  work  and 
studies  in  modern  illustrating.  As  the  work  progresses, 
the  following  types  of  information  and  skill  are  re- 
quired sufficiently  to  give  all  pupils  some  appreciation  of 
the  methods  and  important  conditions  in  our  printing 
trades. 

I.     Composition  and  Proof-reading: 

1.  Type  case. 

2.  Handling  and  setting  type. 

3.  Tools  and  materials. 

4.  Setting  and  distributing  straight  matter. 

5.  Printing  terms. 

6.  Setting  and  distributing  display  matter. 

7.  Reading   and   marking   proofs. 

8.  Correcting  type  matter. 

9.  Setting  from  manuscript. 

10.  Expressing  ideas  in  print  in  such  a  way  as  to 
attract  attention,  to  stimulate  thought,  and,  if 
possible,  to  produce  action. 

II.     Stone  work: 

1.    Locking-up  in  the  chase. 

III.  Press  work: 

1.  Making  ready  on  the  job  press. 

2.  Preparing  paper  and  inks. 

3.  Feeding  the  press. 

4.  Study  of  presses. 

IV.  Typography: 

1.  Types  and  type-faces. 

2.  Proportions,  harmony,  tone,  and  contrast. 

3.  Planning  and  layout  of  work. 

21 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS    AND 
V.     Studies  related  to  printing  and  publishing: 

1.  History  of  printing  as  it  relates  to  present-day 
practice. 

2.  Making  books  and  magazines  (Harper  Brothers). 

3.  Making  newspapers  (New  York  Times). 

4.  Relation  of  the  school  shop  to  the  larger  pro- 
ductive offices. 

5.  Conditions,    requirements,    and    possibilities    in 
printing  and  allied  trades. 

Machine  Shop. 

(Eighth  Year.) 

The  possible  machine-shop  problems  have  consisted 
of  machining  castings  and  steel  parts  to  be  used  in  the 
construction  of  power  machines,  and  also  the  doing  of 
smaller  problems  such  as  arbors,  washers,  bolts,  nuts, 
gear  blanks,  screws,  bearings,  bushings,  pulleys,  lathe 
centers,  tool  shanks,  box  caps,  clamps,  pipe  threading 
and  fitting,  and  various  repair  jobs  as  these  are  selected 
from  the  needs  at  the  school  and  about  the  home.  This 
wide  range  of  work  makes  it  possible  for  each  pupil  to 
have  a  reasonable  amount  of  freedom  in  choosing  pro- 
jects and  problems  in  the  different  divisions  of  the  acti- 
vity. Before  the  engine  lathe  or  any  other  machine  tool 
can  be  operated  by  the  pupil  without  assistance,  the  im- 
portance of  oiling  the  bearings,  adjusting  the  machine 
parts  for  safety,  fastening  the  work,  choosing  and  set- 
ting the  correct  cutting  tools,  selecting  the  proper  feeds 
and  speeds,  and  taking  the  trial  and  finishing  cuts  must 
be  thoroughly  appreciated.    During  the  eighth  year  the 

22 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

following  types  of  information  and  skill  are  acquired 
as  a  basis  for  understanding  the  processes  and  gaining 
insight  into  the  metal  trades : 

I.     Lathe  work: 

1.  Cylindrical  turning  on  centers. 

a.  Location  and  drilling:  of  centers,  grinding  and 
setting  of  tool. 

b.  Turning  to  definite  size,  using  calipers,  scale, 
and  finer  measuring  instruments. 

c.  Typical  lathe  operations. 

2.  Taper  turning. 

a.  Calculating  tapers. 

b.  Method  of  turning. 

c.  Finishing. 

3.  Thread  cutting. 

a.  Calculating  change  of  gears,  etc. 

b.  Grinding  and  setting  treading  tools. 

c.  Cutting  right  and  left  hand  threads. 

4.  Chucking  and  boring. 
II.     Drill  press: 

1.  Methods  of  holding  work. 

2.  Various  uses. 

III.  Bench  and  floor  work: 

1.  Chipping,  sawing  and  filing. 

2.  Laying  out,  fitting  and  assembling. 

3.  Soldering. 

4.  Use  of  taps  and  dies. 

5.  Tempering  and  grinding  tools. 

6.  Key  seating  and  fitting. 

7.  Babbeting  and  scraping  boxes,  etc. 

IV.  Related  information: 

1.  Studies  in  elementary  mechanics,  mathematics, 
and  short  cuts  as  applied  to  practical  shop  prob- 
lems. 

23 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS    AND 

2.  Use,   design,   and   construction   of   common   and 
special  hand  and  machine  tools. 

3.  Methods    of   manufacture    and   commercial   uses 
of  iron  and  steel. 

4.  Relation    of   school   experiences   to    organization 
and  production  in  different  machine  shops. 

5.  Conditions,    requirements,    and    possibilities    in 
metal  and  allied  trades. 

Related  Information  as  a  Basis  for  Industrial  Insight  and 

Guidance. 

It  is  now  quite  generally  realized  that  the  most 
urgent  need  for  the  majority  of  boys  from  12  to  15 
years  of  age  is  not  so  much  for  a  high  degree  of  mani- 
pulative skill  in  trade  operations  as  it  is  for  reliable 
information  with  which  to  judge  the  industries.  Where 
the  best  results  have  been  obtained,  the  exploratory 
shopwork  plan  has  been  paralleled  by  a  study  of  real, 
productive  industry  rather  than  by  a  mere  textbook  ac- 
quaintance. There  are  but  relatively  few  kinds  of  raw 
materials,  and  comparatively  few  principles  involved  in 
their  manufacture.  The  number  of  great  type  indus- 
tries and  their  important  processes  of  production  also 
are  small  to  a  surprising  degree,  which  suggests  that 
these  studies  should  follow  type  activities  and  widely 
significant  operations  somewhat  intensively.  In  addition 
to  studies  of  general  industrial  conditions  and  relation- 
ships, group  excursions  to  local  plants  and  investiga- 
tions of  the  various  types  of  occupations  as  to  impor- 
tance,   health    conditions,    needs,    qualifications,    wages, 

24 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

opportunities,  conditions  of  employment,  and  the  like 
are  helping  to  form  sound  judgments  relative  to  the 
character  and  possibilities  of  industrial  callings.  As 
the  occasion  requires  it,  pupils  are  brought  in  touch  with 
reliable  reading  matter,  unbiased  specialists,  or  what- 
ever  sources  of  information  are  most  needed  at  the  time. 
In  some  schools  a  simple  but  effective  "vocational  in- 
dex" is  used  advantageously  to  record  the  inferences  of 
teachers  and  cithers  based  upon  activities  carried  on  in- 
side and  outside  of  school,  both  during  the  attendance 
and  follow-up  periods. 

While  these  diversified  activities  and  occupational 
studies  undoubtedly  are  beginning  the  preparation  of 
life  work  for  a  largo  number,  it  certainly  should  not  be 
assumed  that  all  pupils  who  are  taking  industrial  arts 
will  go  into  the  industries.  If  properly  organized,  a 
scheme  of  industrial-arts  education  should  be  liberal 
enough  to  help  those  who  can  continue  their  school  work 
to  choose  wisely  their  more  specific  courses  in  secondary 
and  higher  education,  and  likewise  help  those  who  find 
it  necessary  to  leave  school  with  a  minimum  amount  of 
education  to  choose  their  respective  occupations  most 
intelligently.  Therefore,  it  is  proving  desirable  to  have 
the  work  and  study  include  a  large  number  of  industries 
and  industrial  processes,  in  order  that  all  may  have  a 
rich  and  varied  experience  upon  which  to  draw,  in  any 
event. 

25 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS   AND 

Whenever  vocational  classes  or  cooperative  courses 
exist,  it  often  has  proven  more  satisfactory  to  carry  on 
as  little  as  possible  of  the  additional  productive  or 
highly  specialized  work  in  .the  "try-out"  or  "opportun- 
ity" shops  of  the  intermediate  school  or  the  junior  high 
school.  At  any  rate,  it  is  reported  that  a  reasonable 
number  of  industrial  plants  are  being  visited,  first- 
hand information  of  the  proper  type  is  being  made 
available,  and  an  attempt  to  make  clear  the  existing 
relationship  between  the  school  activity  and  the  in- 
dustry represented  is  undertaken  seriously  in  a  compara- 
tively large  number  of  these  schools. 

Possibilities   in   Courses   for   Educational   and   Vocational 

Guidance. 

Much  of  the  criticism  of  the  vocational  guidance 
movement  in  this  country  may  be  attributed  to  the  ob- 
jection to  having  early  decisions  forced  upon  young  per- 
sons by  the  larger  experience  of  teachers  and  counselors. 
When  reduced  to  its  lowest  terms,  this  conception  of 
guidance  merely  concerns  itself  with  placement,  which 
consists  of  finding  jobs  or  employment  for  pupils. 
Although  teachers  are  certain  to  realize  the  need  for 
giving  counsel  and  information  during  the  junior-high 
school  period,  and  the  very  nature  of  their  positions 
will  cause  them  consciously  or  unconsciously  to  give 
much  of  both,  nevertheless,  the  experienced  teachers 
fully   realize  their  limitations   in  this  uncertain   field 

26 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

where  many  pitfalls  are  possible  as  a  result  of  misdi- 
rection. On  the  other  hand,  the  great  need  for  dealing 
intelligently  with  the  problem  of  an  efficient  choice,  both 
as  to  self-expression  and  public  service,  suggests  that  the 
decision  might  well  come  as  a  result  of  the  pupil's  un- 
derstanding of  economic  facts  and  values.  Even  though 
the  school  fails  to  keep  its  pupils  from  choosing  blindly 
by  presenting  the  related  information  and  helping  them 
to  interpret  this  in  terms  of  the  existing  conditions,  the 
fact  remains  that  sooner  or  later  most  secondary  school 
pupils  will  choose  their  life  work. 

Several  suggestive  experiments  have  been  developed 
to  ascertain  the  benefits  which  may  be  derived  from  or- 
ganizing separate  courses  in  vocational  and  educational 
guidance  as  a  definite  part  of  the  junior-high  school 
program.  One  of  these  courses,  which  offers  some  pro- 
mise, was  introduced  at  The  Lincoln  School  of  Teachers 
College,  New  York,  as  an  experiment  in  September, 
1910.  At  that  time,  it  was  decided  to  devote  one  period 
of  each  week  to  provide  all  ninth  grade  pupils  with 
reliable  information  concerning  the  social,  economic, 
and  larger  personal  aspects  of  the  most  important  life 
occupations.  This  course  was  planned  to  help  all  pupils 
who  continue  their  school  work  to  choose  their  courses 
more  wisely  in  the  senior  high  school,  as  well  as  in  their 
higher  education,  and  also  to  help  those  who  might  find 
it  necessary  to  leave  school  with  a  minimum  amount  of 

27 


INDUSTRIAL    ARTS    AND 

education    to    choose    their   respective   procedure    more 
thoughtfully. 

In  connection  with  each  possible  life  occiipation 
studied,  detailed  considerations  relative  to  the  nature  of 
the  work,  the  advantages  and  disadvantages,  the  quali- 
fications and  training,  the  possibilities,  remuneration, 
and  advancement  were  had  through  reliable  reading 
matter,  class  discussions,  student  reports,  talks  by  spec- 
ialists, and  excursions.  This  organized  information 
merely  supplemented  that  which  had  been  given  in  the 
other  school  activities  by  presenting  all  of  the  related 
facts  that  may  help  pupils  to  weigh  values  and  choose 
their  future  courses  and  work.  Aside  from  these  voca- 
tional guidance  values,  this  course  also  includes  a  brief 
interpretation  of  economic  life,  industrial  ownership, 
labor  problems,  related  organizations,  scientific  man- 
agement, supply  and  demand,  and  the  development  of 
our  present-day  producing  and  service  groups,  in  order 
to  give  understanding  and  to  encourage  a  wholesome 
attitude  toward  work  and  workers  in  each  occupation 
studied.  Such  important  life  callings  as  agriculture, 
fishing,  mining,  food  manufacturing,  textiles  and  cloth- 
ing trades,  mechanical  pursuits,  printing  and  publish- 
ing, professions  and  allied  occupations,  engineering  pro- 
fessions, and  commercial  occupations  were  studied  dur- 
ing the  year  with  apparent  interest  and  profit. 

28 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

Problems  in  the   Organization  and    Offering   of   Industrial 

Activities. 

The  junior-high  schools  in  the  large  school  systems 
usually  have  organized  their  industrial  courses  on  the 
rotation  plan  by  having  separate,  specialized  shops  to 
provide  proper  facilities  and  instruction  for  the  various 
classes,  each  pupil  of  which  elects  from  two  to  four 
different  activities  a  year.  Jn  the  latter  case,  each  one 
of  these  unit  courses  is  offered  from  five  to  seven  and 
one-half  hours  a  week  during  a  period  of  cither  nine  or 
ten  weeks.  On  the  other  hand,  the  time  allowed  for  the 
industrial  arts  in  many  of  our  upper  grade  curricula  is 
still  entirely  too  small  for  the  manual  aspects  of  the 
work  and  the  studies  of  conditions  and  processes  in  the 
workaday  world.  Many  of  the  small  junior-high  schools 
and  intermediate  schools  also  are  hampered  temporarily 
because  of  the  necessary  expense  for  suitable  equipment 
and  instruction.  Nevertheless,  more  teachers  in  the 
smaller  communities  have  had  the  courage  to  reorganize 
their  courses  on  the  general  workshop  plan  already 
mentioned,  thus  adopting  the  all-around  shop  which  is 
expanded  easily  from  time  to  time.4  This  procedure 
makes  it  possible  to  include  other  typical  industrial  ac- 
tivities besides  woodwork,  which  unquestionably  offers 
somewhat  limited  possibilities  for  getting  concrete  ex- 
periences and  studying  present-day  industries.  In  some 
of  these  schools,  where  only  six  different  units  of  indus- 

'Bowman,    C.    A.     "Industrial   Education   for   the   Smaller  Com- 
munity," Manual  Training  Magazine,   Jan.,  1917,   Vol.   XVIII. 

29 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS    AND 

trial  arts  are  provided,  the  length  of  time  devoted  to 
each  unit  course  is  extended  to  a  semester,  if  the  acti- 
vity and  related  study  in  question  can  be  justified  for 
this  time,  and  the  length  of  the  periods  or  the  number 
of  periods  a  week  is  reduced  to  meet  the  local  situation. 
In  making  this  investigation  it  was  found  that  the 
general  aims  of  the  industrial  courses  for  seventh,  eighth, 
and  ninth  year  boys  do  not  differ  greatly  as  a  result  of 
the  size  and  location  of  the  school.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  organization  of  each  respective  department  has  been 
determined  necessarily  by  the  size  of  both  the  commun- 
ity and  the  school,  as  a  number  of  instructors  and 
several  distinct  shops  are  used  to  accommodate  large 
numbers  of  pupils  while  only  one  man  or  perhaps  two 
men  will  be  available  to  teach  industrial  arts  in  the 
smaller  school.  The  original  try-out  courses  taught  in 
the  Washington  Junior-High  School  at  Rochester,  New- 
York,  are  examples  of  the  former  type,  having  a  sep- 
arate shop  and  instructor  for  nearly  every  particular 
form  of  industrial  activity  offered.  This  type  of  or- 
ganization allowed  the  boys  to  have  samplings  of  at 
least  ten  weeks  from  each  of  the  different  shops  during 
the  course.  Printing,  cabinet-making,  gas  engine,  sheet 
metal,  pattern  making,  and  machine  work  were  each 
offered  for  ten  weeks,  however,  this  did  not  mean 
the  same  total  number  of  hours  in  each  shop.  Print- 
ing and  cabinet-making  were  offered  during  the  last  half 

30 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

of  the  seventh  year,  when  only  six  hours  a  week  were 
allowed  for  shop  work,  while  twelve  hours  a  week  were 
given  in  the  eighth  year  to  gas  engine,  sheet  metal, 
pattern  making,  and  machine  work  respectively.  During 
the  ninth  year  twelve  hours  a  week  were  provided  for 
shop  work  and,  since  this  was  the  last  year  of  the  try-out 
period,  each  boy  was  allowed  to  choose  one  or  more  acti- 
vities from  cabinet-making,  finishing,  printing,  ma- 
chine shop,  pattern  making,  sheet  metal,  gas  engine, 
painting  and  decorating,  plumbing,  electricity,  and  bak- 
ing. Related  industrial  mathematics,  elementary 
science,  and  drawing  and  design  were  required  through- 
out the  .two  and  one-half  years  of  the  course;  seven  and 
one-half  hours  a  week  being  allowed  for  mathematics 
and  drawing,  while  one-fourth  as  much  time  was  spent 
on  elementary  science  as  on  shopwork. 

It  is  important  to  note  that  the  various  kinds  of  in- 
dustrial activities  offered  in  the  Rochester  junior-high 
schools  are  typical  of  important  industries  represented 
in  Rochester,  New  York.  In  addition  to  the  modified 
try-out  course,  each  school  now  offers  separate  industrial 
technical  and  vocational  courses.  Perhaps  it  should  be 
mentioned  that  the  Rochester  Trade  School,  which  is 
likewise  a  part  of  the  city  school  system,  is  prepared  to 
give  even  more  definite  vocational  education  to  those 
desirous  of  preparing  for  specific  industrial  pursuits  or 
trades.  This  school  has  trade  agreements  with  many  of 
the  leading  shops  and  factories  in  that  city. 

31 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS   AND 

Modifications  of  this  plan  for  the  rotation  of  shop 
work  are  being  practiced  more  or  less  effectively  in  Du- 
luth,  Minnesota,  in  New  York  City,  in  Detroit  and 
Grand  Rapids,  Michigan,  and  other  cities.  The  shop 
work  at  the  Ben  Blewett  Jnnior-High  School  in  St. 
Louis,  Missouri,  is  organized  into  two  divisions :  First, 
the  seventh  grade,  which  has  compulsory  activities  and, 
second,  the  eighth  and  ninth  grades,  which  have  elective 
shop  courses.  In  other  words,  each  pupil  has  an  oppor- 
tunity to  choose  between  the  technical  arts,  science, 
commercial,  art,  and  classical  courses  after  completing 
the  essentially  required  industrial-arts  work  during  his 
seventh  year.  More  detailed  statements  of  these  eourses, 
as  well  as  reports  on  several  units,  projects,  and  pro- 
blems which  have  been  successfully  developed  by  indi- 
viduals having  somewhat  varied  points  of  view  and  re- 
sults, appear  in  the  following  chapters. 

Improved   Methods   Needed   in   Many   Industrial-Arts 

Courses.6 

In  spite  of  the  excellent  results  and  promising  out- 
look which  have  been  reviewed,  this  investigation  makes 
it  evident  that  traditional  practice  still  too  largely  deter- 
mines the  content  and  method  of  the  industrial  subjects 
in  the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  grades.  The  follow- 
ing facts,  which  are  based  on  this  survey  relating  to  the 

'Edgerton.  A.  H.  "Experimental  Work  in  Junior-High  School 
Industrial-Arts,"  Industrial-Arts  Magazine,  July,  1919,  Vol.  VIII. 
(See  also   for  Tentative  Course  of  Study.) 


PREVOCATIONAL  EDUCATION 
instruction  received  by  7,3SCJ  pupils  iu  different  sec- 
tions of  the  country,  show  that  large  numbers  of  these 
courses  include  features  which  are  extremely  wasteful 
and  consequently  omit  much  that  is  useful.  While  a 
few  of  these  school  systems  have  introduced  the  junior- 
high  school  plan  of  organization  in  name  only,  as  pre- 
viously suggested,  it  is  reasonable  to  believe  that  the 
methods  and  procedure  for  the  industrial  courses  in 
these  379  selected  schools  are,  at  least,  equal  to  the  in- 
struction ordinarily  received  in  other  schools  having 
similar  aims  and  purposes. 

I.  Over  20  per  cent  of  these  schools  report  that  the 
shopworh  in  their  courses  is  confined  to  work  in  wood 
on  I, j.     (See  Table  I.) 

Even  though  this  work  properly  represents  the  divi- 
sions of  the  woodworking  industry  (carpentry,  pattern- 
making,  and  the  like),  and  is  supplemented  by  studies 
of  occupations  through  shop  excursions  and  readings, 
it  at  best  offers  limited  opportunity  for  gaining  typical 
experiences  and  studying  our  present  industrial  pursuits 
and  needs.  It  is  doubtful  if  those  courses  which  mainly 
tend  to  emphasize  manipulative  skill  in  the  use  of  wood- 
working tools  can  be  expected  to  do  more  than  to  gain 
meager  responses  in  interests,  inclinations,  and  capaci- 
ties, for  reasons  which  will  follow. 

II.  Over  78  per  cent  of  these  schools  report  that 
their  courses  emphasize  the  doing  of  man;/  operations  or 

33 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS   AND 

processes  without  respect  for  the  needs  and  interests  of 
their  pupils. 

Several  of  these  courses  allow  the  pupils  to  make 
worth  while  products,  thus  allowing  the  manipulative 
skill  to  be  incidental  to  the  solution  of  the  construction 
problems,  but  completely  fail  to  allow  an  opportunity 
for  thinking  out  and  making  plans  to  meet  the  difficul- 
ties involved  in  their  work.  The  majority  of  these 
pupils  are  required  to  do  their  work  in  a  certain  pre- 
scribed way,  as  the  chief  emphasis  is  placed  upon  the 
following  of  directions,  and  very  little  allowance  is  made 
for  initiative.  A  number  of  the  instructors  of  these 
classes  report  that  they  are  encouraged  to  do  much  of 
the  pupils'  work  for  them,  since  the  success  of  their 
courses  is  frequently  judged  in  terms  of  the  quantity 
and  quality  of  work  which  is  displayed  at  the  annual 
school  exhibition.  The  least  successful  of  these  courses, 
however,  are  those  which  require  all  pupils  to  make 
formal  exercises,  models,  or  pieces  that  give  consider- 
able skill  in  the  use  of  tools  but  offer  little  else  of  value. 
Nearly  60  per  cent  of  the  instructors  admit  that  the  re- 
pair and  construction  work  which  they  are  required  to 
do  for  the  school  systems  forces  them  to  emphasize  the 
production  work  needed  rather  than  the  specific  needs 
and  interests  of  the  learners. 

Perhaps  there  is  greater  danger  of  exploiting  pupils 
in  industrial  courses  than  in  any  of  the  other  school  sub- 

34 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 
jects.     Tins  is  explained  by  the  insistence  of  some  ad- 
ministrators and  teachers  upon  having  all  maintenance 

work,  such  as  repairing  and  making  furniture  and  other 
school  equipment,  printing  s<  boo]  forms,  and  the  like, 
done  during  the  regular  shop  periods,  regardless  oi 
whether  or  not  the  pupils  concerned  are  benefitted  by 
the  particular  kind  and  amount  "I'  exp  involved 

in  the  work  which  they  are  required  to  do.  Where  the 
doing  of  the  work  is  given  this  undue  amount  of  einpha- 
3,  one  cannol  help  wondering  if  those  responsible  for 
this  procedure  are  not  more  concerned  with  the  repair 
and  construction  work  than  with  the  educational  growth 
of  their  pupils.  At  any  rate,  some  such  method  as  the 
following  must  be  developed  for  overcoming  this  ex- 
tremely bad  feature  of  tending  to  make  the  school  shops 
a  sort  of  "dumping  ground"  by  selecting  experiem 
which  obviously  have  meager  educational  value  during 
regular  school  hours. 

An  employment  burea/u  plan,  which  was  introduced 
three  years  ago  at  The  Lincoln  School,  New  York  City, 
affords  several  unique  educational  advantages  by  assist- 
ing the  older  pupils  in  finding  interesting  and  instruc- 
tive employment  about  the  school  during  out-of-class 
hours.  Pupils  from  all  classes  of  homes  are  given  an 
opportunity  to  do  certain  parts  of  the  school's  work, 
such  as  printing  school  forms  and  announcements, 
checking  and  receiving  pay  in  the  lunchroom,  assisting 
in  the  library  or  classroom,  and  repairing  and  construct- 

35 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS    AND 


Job  Card. 

Date . 

Nature   of   work 

To  be   made  for 

Date    promised    Extension 

Date    delivered    

Pupil's    name    


FIG.   II.     JOB   CAKD. 

ing  school  equipment.  This  work  in  each  case  is 
arranged  and  recorded  by  the  pupil  in  duplicate  form 
on  the  job  card  shown  in  Figure  II,  after  which  it  is 
carried  out  under  the  supervision  of  the  teacher  in 
charge  of  the  respective  activity.  The  amount  of  money 
which  pupils  are  paid  for  the  different  kinds  of  un- 
skilled, semi-skilled,  and  more  highly  skilled  or  respon- 
sible work  ranges  from  ten  cents  to  twenty-two  cents 
an  hour;  however,  the  rate  allowed  in  each  case  is  deter- 
mined by  the  nature  of  the  work  at  hand  and  the  ability 
of  the  pupil  chosen  to  do  it.  Although  the  pupils  are 
free  to  give  only  a  few  hours  a  week  to  this  special  acti- 
vity, all  of  the  junior-high  school  pupils  participate  in 
at  least  one  or  more  of  these  profitable  experiences  dur- 
ing the  year. 

In  addition  to  the  financial  consideration,  this  em- 
ployment bureau  plan  gives  pupils  a  better  appreciation 
of  actual  service,  and  offers  valuable  experience  in  learn- 

36 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

ing  to  earn,  without  danger  of  exploitation.  The  vax] 
ous  tasks  not  only  furnish  an  excellent  substitute  for 
the  responsible  duties  which  children  have  in  the  rural 
communities,  but  also  make  it  possible  for  boys  and 
girls  to  use  their  special  interests  and  abilities  beyond 
the  stages  when  the  work  can  be  justified  as  a  legitimate 
part  of  the  regular  class  activities.  This  type  of  em- 
ployment organization  represents  a  relatively  small  in- 
vestment and  is  not  considered  a  financial  burden  in 
any  sense.  It  provides  a  satisfactory  means  for  dispos- 
ing of  certain  necessary  jobs  which  offer  somewhat 
limited  educational  value  during  regular  school  hours, 
and  it  likewise  allows  the  industrial-arts  courses  to  em- 
phasize the  needs  of  the  learner  in  preference  to  the 
needed  repair  and  production  work  which  should  have 
a  place. 

Regardless  of  the  size  of  the  school  system,  if  the 
industrial-arts  activities  are  to  continue  to  occupy  an 
important  place  in  the  program  for  general  education, 
these  courses  must  be  expected  to  share  the  responsibil- 
ity with  the  other  subjects  for  helping  adolescent  boys 
to  develop  perspective  and  thinking  power  in  connec- 
tion with  real  life  situations.  These  investigations 
clearly  show  that  such  larger  values  as  industrial  intelli- 
gence and  insight  can  not  be  realized  alone  from  the 
mere  doing  and  making  of  things,  where  skill  in  the 
manipulation   of  materials,  tools   and  machines   is  the 

37 

51973 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS   AND 

main  emphasis.  Furthermore,  the  psychological  and 
sociological  needs  and  interests  of  boys  from  12  to  lb 
years  of  age  are  mainly  in  thought-provoking  situations, 
projects,  or  problems,  involving  semi-productive  or  real 
production  work,  rather  than  in  series  of  exercises, 
models,  pieces,  or  whatever  else  you  may  care  to  call 
them.  Because  of  the  natural  interest  which  boys  of 
this  age  have  in  industrial  or  mechanical  things,  they 
can  be  required  to  make  series  of  formal  pieces,  models, 
or  exercises  without  much  resistance;  however,  to  thus 
take  a  considerable  amount  of  time  in  over-emphasizing 
skill  in  the  use  of  a  few  tools  and  materials  means  a 
great  sacrifice  in  the  larger  values  of  the  work,  as  al- 
ready stated.  The  results  of  much  observation  and 
several  experiments  make  it  obvious  that  any  values 
which  exist  in  such  formal  courses  may  be  retained  and 
given  greater  emphasis  where  the  boys'  chief  concern 
is  the  construction  and  solution  of  useful  projects.  The 
most  valuable  of  these  challenge  boys  to  think  out, 
study,  and  make  definite  plans  to  meet  the  difficulties 
involved  in  the  related  problems,  as  well  as  to  select 
proper  materials,  tools,  and  operations;  to  make  calcu- 
lations on  stock,  operations  and  cost  when  needed;  and 
to  carry  out  the  other  requirements  which  the  specifi- 
cations demand. 


38 


II.     Organizing  and  Conducting  Repre- 
sentative Activities 

Improvements    Result   from    Clear-Cut    Objectives 

ANY  promising  results  and  a  few  striking 
inadequacies  have  been  pointed  out  in  con- 
nection with  recent  investigations  of  the 
seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  grade  industrial 
activities  in  379  of  the  most  progressive 
intermediate  and  junior-high  schools  in  the  United 
States.  In  studying  these  data,  one  is  impressed  by 
the  marked  improvements  in  content  and  method  which 
have  been  realized  during  the  past  five  years.  Un- 
ci oubetdly  this  progress  is  due  partially  to  our  greater 
tendency  to  insist  upon  having  courses  of  study  in 
industrial  education  programs  based  upon  clear-cut 
needs  and  objectives.  In  judging  the  worth  of  what 
and  how  we  teach  in  the  shop  and  other  related  courses, 
both  administrators  and  teachers  have  found  it  advan- 
tageous to  distinguish  more  clearly  between  the  aims 
and  purposes  of  those  courses  which  have  more  or  less 
indirect  vocational  significance,  but  are  offered  mainly 
for  general  educational  ends,  and  those  units  which 
point  directly  to  a  means  of  preparation  for  wage-earn- 
ing occupations.  However,  there  still  is  a  wide  differ- 
ence of  opinion  with  respect  to  the  most  suitable  meth- 
ods  for   organizing   and   offering   the  former   courses, 

39 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS    AND 

especially  with  the  thought  of  having  seventh,  eighth 
and  ninth  year  boys  learn  most  effectively  and  econom- 
ically. 

Chief  Reasons  for  Offering  Try-Out  Courses. 

In  some  respects,  the  various  claims  for  the  indus- 
trial arts  courses  might  be  considered  as  hopeful  expres- 
sions of  ideals  rather  than  as  representing  the  present 
status  and  conduct  of  this  work.  This  is  one  more 
indication  of  the  progressive  spirit  which  is  backing  the 
movement  in  this  country  for  democratic  ideals  in  our 
public  school  systems.  Notwithstanding  the  similarity 
noted  in  the  chief  claims,  which  after  all  differ  largely 
as  to  the  amount  of  emphasis  given  to  each  item,  the 
achievements  observed  in  a  number  of  schools  make  it 
evident  that  a  decided  difference  exists  both  in  the  con- 
ception of  the  claims  themselves,  and  also  as  to  how 
these  can  be  realized  most  satisfactorily. 

In  the  reports  from  303  schools,  each  of  which 
gave  its  main  reason  for  offering  instruction  in  the 
industrial  arts  and  related  studies,  the  four  leading 
claims,  when  collated,  were  found  to  be  given  the  fol- 
lowing order  of  importance:6 

1.  Contributing  to  the  general  experience,  all- 
around  development,  and  industrial  intelligence. 


6See  Table  II  in  the  introductory  chapter  for  number  and  per 
cent  of  schools  which  emphasized  each  item. 

40 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

2.  Aiding  in  the  intelligent  selection  of  indus- 
trial occupations  without  encouraging  early  choices. 

3.  Enriching  the  school  experience  of  the  pupil 
through  concrete  situations. 

4.  Preparing  for  entrance  into  industrial  voca- 
tions in  the  school  and  through  cooperation  outside. 

It  is  obvious  that  these  claims  give  little  clue  to  the 
actual  content  and  method  of  the  courses  which  they 
represent. 

Determining  the  Important  Need  for  Courses. 

Although  over  80  per  cent  of  the  379  schools  inves- 
tigated state  that  their  industrial  activities  aim  (1)  to 
develop  the  pupil's  special  aptitudes  and  capacities  and 
(2)  to  prepare  him  for  the  demands  which  the  future 
is  going  to  make  upon  him,  there  is  a  decided  range  of 
opinion  as  to  how  these  objectives  are  to  be  accomplish- 
ed. Many  of  the  school  authorities  seriously  believe 
that  the  success  of  the  industrial  arts  instruction  de- 
pends upon  the  extent  to  which  the  work  is  organized 
and  offered  in  approximation  of  the  processes,  prob- 
lems, and  conditions  in  the  divisions  of  industry  repre- 
sented. 

It  is  encouraging  to  observe  that  over  67  per  cent 
of  these  intermediate  and  junior-high  schools  are  at- 
tempting to  broaden  and  vitalize  the  industrial  activi- 
ties which  heretofore  have  consisted  mainly  of  shop 
work  (often  limited  to  benchwork  in  wood).     The  juu- 

41 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS   AND 

ior-high  schools  of  Los  Angeles,  California,  offer  a 
good  illustration  of  this  change  which  has  taken  place 
in  many  systems  during  the  past  two  or  three  years. 
In  this  case,  the  shop  courses,  which  formerly  covered 
three  years  of  woodwork,  have  been  reorganized  to  give 
pupils  so-called  vocational  exposure,  along  with  the 
study  of  occupations  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  them 
to  enter  their  life  work  with  some  vision  of  the  voca- 
tions. Experience  already  has  shown  that  the  indus- 
trial arts  or  prevocational  courses  are  an  incentive  for 
causing  pupils  to  enter  the  senior-high  school,  in  which 
case  they  are  prepared  to  elect  vocational  or  other 
courses  more  intelligently,  and  to  make  progress  from 
the  outset. 

Industrial  Work  as  a  Functional  Activity. 
Because  it  is  impossible  to  represent  all  of  the  var- 
ious recognized  wage-earning  occupations  in  the  local 
community,  a  small  number  of  the  schools  have  con- 
cluded for  the  present,  at  least,  to  consider  the  indus- 
trial work  more  as  an  intellectual  or  liberal  study  than 
as  a  functional  activity.  The  shopwork  observed  in  sev- 
eral of  these  schools  resembles  the  earlier  form  of  man- 
ual training,  which  was  introduced  at  that  time  as  a 
mental  discipline  rather  than  as  a  practical  subject.  As 
a  result,  such  courses  are  so  formal  and  isolated  that 
they  apparently  fail  to  connect  up  with  the  practical  ap- 
plications of  everyday  life.  Even  the  technique,  which 
is  emphasized  in  making  different  abstract  pieces  and 

42 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

exercises,  does  little  to  inculcate  habits  of  productive 
industry,  thrift,  and  service  as  is  occasionally  claimed. 

It  unquestionably  would  be  both  impracticable  and 
undesirable  for  any  school  to  fully  represent  so  great  a 
variety  and  number  of  highly  specialized  occupational 
pursuits,  as  are  listed  for  any  of  our  cities  of  mixed  in- 
dustries in  the  last  Special  Report  of  the  United  States 
Census.  The  expenditure  could  be  justified  neither  on 
the  basis  of  vocational  efficiency  nor  because  of  educa- 
tional needs.  An  investigation  which  was  conducted  a 
few  years  ago  by  Dr.  L.  P.  Ayres,  of  the  Russell  Sage 
Foundation,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  facts  concerning 
the  conditions  in  78  American  city  school  systems,  has 
some  bearing  on  this  claim  that  the  intermediate  or 
junior-high  school  should  participate  in  a  program  for 
industrial  education  "that  will  directly  prepare  the 
children  to  enter  the  local  industries."  The  facts  re- 
garding the  birthplace  of  the  13-year  old  boys  in  the 
public  schools  of  those  cities,  which  were  between  25,- 
000  and  200,000  population,  show  that  "only  one  fath- 
er in  six  was  born  in  the  city  where  he  now  lives  and 
only  a  few  more  than  one-half  of  the  boys  were  born 
where  they  now  live."7  Table  III  shows  the  detailed 
facts  of  the  22,027  cases  studied  by  Dr.  Ayres. 

On  the  other  hand,  experience  of  the  past  few  years 
has  demonstrated  clearly  that  it  is  possible  to  offer  well- 


7Ayres.  L.  P.  "Some  Conditions  Affecting  Problems  "f  In- 
dustrial Education  in  7S  American  School  Systems."  Russell  Sage 
Foundation   Publication. 

43 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS   AND 

organized  units  of  typical  activities,  which  will  develop 
varying  degrees  of  industrial  intelligence  and  give  in- 
sight into  the  conditions,  in  a  number  of  modern  indus- 
tries without  the  danger  of  over-emphasizing  the  limi- 
tations in  localized  and  undesirable  occupations.  This 
does  not  mean  that  we  should  be  unmindful  of  the  local 

Table  III.     Facts   Concerning   Birthplace   of  22,027   Boys 

and  Their  Fathers  Indicate  that  Large  Majority  of 

Adults  Will  Not  Work  in  Same  Communities 

Where  Schooling  is  Received. 

Boys  Fathers 

Per  Per 

Birthplace                         Number  Cent  Number  Cent 

Same  City   12,699         58  3,601         16 

Same   state   but  not   same 

city    4,233         19  5,349         24 

Other     states     in     United 

States     3,069         14  4,364         20 

Foreign  country   2,026           9  8,713         40 

Total     22,027       100  22,027  100 

needs  and  interests  in  representing  and  organizing  in- 
dustrial-arts courses  for  any  community.  The  local 
well-being  of  the  home  and  community  in  an  agricul- 
tural section,  for  example,  demands  a  somewhat  dif- 
ferent emphasis  in  its  industrial  work  than  would  be 
offered  to  meet  the  needs  in  a  city  of  mixed  industries. 

Wide  Range  in  Content  of  Industrial  Courses. 

Rural  industrial  work,  which  mainly  concerns  it- 
self with  farm  projects  that  are  carried  on  inside  and 
outside  of  the  school  shop,  represents  one  type  of  local 

44 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

interest  for  helping  to  determine  the  content  and  meth- 
od in  several  of  the  schools  reporting.  With  lew  excep- 
tions, the  essentially  rural  communities  state  that  not- 
able progress  has  been  made  by  abandoning  the  absurd 
practice  of  basing  their  procedure  largely  upon  the 
courses  and  methods  of  the  larger  school  systems.  For 
obvious  reasons,  the  all-around  or  farm-workshop  plan, 
already  described  as  a  solution  for  the  industrial  at! 
in  the  smaller  community,  likewise  is  found  most  suit- 
able for  the  limitations  of  these  rural  intermediate  and 
junior-high  schools.s 

Such  closely  related  activities  as  carpentry,  con- 
crete construction,  harness  repair,  forging,  bench  metal 
work,  gas  engine  operation,  machine  assembly  and  re- 
pair, farm  woodwork,  and  the  like  are  taught  by  the 
Local  instructor,  who  frequently  extends  the  opportunity 
tor  concrete  experiences  and  information  by  cooperat- 
ing with  practical  men  and  establishments  in  the  com- 
munity. It  is  evident  that  the  needs  in  any  one  of 
these  activities  call  for  a  diversity  of  dexterity  and 
knowledge  for  understanding,  for  constructing,  for  im- 
provising and  for  repairing  products  to  be  used  on  the 
farm  and  in  the  home.  The  needs  in  farm  woodwork, 
for  instance,  are  not  so  much  for  products  involving 
carefully  made,  close  fitting  joints  as  they  are  for  such 
comparatively  rough  but  useful  construction  as  potato 


"Roehl,     L.    M.     "A    Farm     Workshop."     INDUSTRIAL-ARTS 
MAGAZINK.    Nov.,   1915,  Vol.    IV. 

45 


INDUSTRIAL    ARTS    AND 

crates,  gates,  brooders,  hen-coops,  cold  frames,  seed  tes- 
ters, corn-cribs,  garages,  eveners,  single-trees  and  vari- 
ous rebuilding  and  repair  jobs.  The  schools  which  stress 
the  home  needs  as  a  part  of  the  farm-mechanics  cour- 
ses often  include  the  renewal  and  repair  of  such  utilities 
as  faucets,  window  and  door  screens,  plumbing,  electri- 
cal fixtures  and  appliances,  the  adjustment  of  window 
shades,  door  locks,  lawn  mowers,  doors  that  bind;  also, 
the  making  of  the  many  other  adaptations  which  must 
necessarily  be  met  in  rural  communities.  When  prop- 
erly offered  in  terms  of  the  school  and  home  projects, 
the  industrial  activities  and  related  studies  furnish  ex- 
cellent possibilities  for  unifying  the  school,  the  farm  and 
the  home  life  of  all  concerned. 

Industrial-arts  courses  in  cities  of  mixed  indus- 
tries are  being  organized,  more  and  more,  to  include 
different  types  of  representative  experiences  chosen 
from  present-day  industrial  callings.  Beginning  in  the 
seventh  grade,  boys  in  many  cities  of  over  10,000  popu- 
lation are  given  short  courses  in  a  number  of  shop  units 
as  a  try-out,  or  so-called  prevocational,  period.  This 
system  frequently  gives  both  the  pupils  and  teachers 
some  basis  for  the  future  selection  of  courses  and  occu- 
pations. Some  of  the  schools  insist  that  they  are  ex- 
tending these  opportunities  in  order  to  give  special  pre- 
paration for  entrance  into  the  skilled  trades.  For  ex- 
ample, the  Hackley  Manual  Training  School,  at  Muske- 

46 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

goii,  Mich.,  allows  its  pupils  to  elect  vocational  or  trade 
school  courses  at  the  end  of  the  seventh  year,  if  circum- 
stances make  it  impossible  or  undesirable  for  boys  to 
continue  through  the  regular  high  school.  Perhaps 
the  former  courses  in  the  Lafayette  Bloom  Junior 
High  School,  at  Cincinnati,  0.,  give  one  of  the  best  il- 
lustrations of  a  department  which  primarily  aims  to 
offer  an  earlier  beginning  in  specific  training  for  those 
boys  who  leave  school  without  much  further  preparation. 
These  courses  are  the  exception,  however,  as  a  large  ma- 
jority of  the  -schools  report  that  they  are  making  no 
special  attempt  to  emphasize  proficiency  in  specific  occu- 
pations as  low  as  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades,  because 
of  their  conviction  that  the  industries  offer  little  to 
boys  under  16  years  of  age.  Nevertheless,  a  compara- 
tively large  number  of  schools  in  this  group  insist  that 
boys  can  be  given  enough  freedom  in  choice  and  suffic- 
ient variety  of  industrial  experiences  to  help  many  in 
the  selection  of  their  life  work  and  some  in  the  begin- 
ning of  their  preparation  for  it. 

The  most  progressive  of  these  industrial-arts  cour- 
-<■-,  which  are  designed,  in  part,  to  try  out  interests  in 
order  to  determine  likes  and  dislikes,  and  to  test  capa- 
cities for  understanding  and  doing  industrial  and  me- 
chanical work,  do  tend  to  contribute  toward  the  greater 
vocational  efficiency  of  the  pupils  during  the  ninth 
grade.     This  would  seem  to  be  the  psychological  and 

47 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS   AND 

physiological  time  to  place  somewhat  greater  emphasis 
upon  technique  and  the  related  technical  information. 
As  a  result  of  the  various  try-out  experiences  in  the  sev- 
enth and  eighth  years,  some  pupils  are  found  taking 
more  extensive  work  in  courses  already  started,  while 
others  investigate  new  activities  or  experiment  with  se- 
lected problems.  This  practice  is  also  increasing  in 
those  schools  which  take  the  attitude  that  while  a  num- 
ber of  the  boys  will  not  be  adapted  to  industrial  work, 
either  in  interest  or  ability,  all  boys  should  have  an  in- 
telligent understanding  of  the  processes,  conditions,  and 
relationships  in  productive  industry. 

General  Methods  in  Organizing  Try-Out  Courses. 

In  the  best  of  these  courses,  each  pupil  partici- 
pates in  a  reasonable  amount  of  work  which  stresses  the 
atmosphere  and,  to  some  extent,  the  time  element  and 
accuracy  of  the  commercial  plant.9  Whenever  the 
equipment  in  the  school  shop,  for  example,  will  not  al- 
low boys  to  do  their  work  by  the  most  practical  methods, 
it  is  made  clear  how  this  would  be  taken  up  in  the 
commercial  shop  and  that  their  work  is  being  carried  on 
in  as  practicable  a  manner  as  possible  with  the  neces- 
sarily limited  shop  facilities.  This  and  other  infor- 
mation, relative  to  the  methods  used  in  larger  produc- 
tive industries,  is  gained  through  such  sources  as  plan- 
ned excursions,  reliable  reading  matter,  student  reports, 


"Edgerton,  A.  H.  "To  What  Extent  Can  We  Justify  the  Use 
of  Machinery  in  Our  School  Shops  on  the  Basis  of  Its  Efficiency?" 
INDUSTRIAL-ARTS  MAGAZINE,  Nov.,  1915,  Vol.  IV,  p.  202. 

48 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

motion  pictures,  class  discussions  and  talks  by  special- 
ists. 

As  would  be  expected,  there  is  some  variation  both 
in  the  kinds  and  in  the  organization  of  shop  activities 
represented  in  the  various  school  systems.  The  Etting- 
er  plan,  in  New  York  City,  for  example,  provides  for 
the  rotation  of  a  combination  of  nine-week  units  in  des- 
ignated intermediate  schools,  where  the  boys  get  exper- 
ience in  machine  work,  sheet  metal,  printing,  wood 
working,  electric  wiring,  plumbing,  drafting,  garmenl 
design,  sign  painting,  and  bookbinding.  This  plan  is 
so  organized  that  a  boy  who  has  unusual  ability  may 
receive  special  training  without  completing  the  cycle. 

The  junior-high  school,  at  Grand  Rapids,  Mich., 
also  rotates  the  boys  in  printing,  sheet  metal  work,  au- 
tomobile construction,  wood  working,  machine  shop 
practice,  electrical  construction,  forging,  and  mechani- 
cal drawing  for  one  double  period  daily.  This  school 
undertakes  to  have  each  boy  sample  the  eight  activities 
for  ten-week  periods  during  the  seventh  and  eighth 
years,  in  order  that  he  may  continue  one  elected  activ- 
ity more  intensively  for  the  entire  year. 

At  School  No.  47,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  the  industrial 
activities  include  machine  shop  practice,  forging,  sheet 
metal  work,  pipe  fitting  (for  the  seventh  grade),  bench 
woodwork,  plaster  casts,  wood  turning,  pattern  making 
and  molding,  electrical  work    (for  the  eighth  grade), 

49 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS    AND 

carpentry,  cabinet  making,  wood  finishing,  pattern  mak- 
ing and  foundry  work,  concrete  construction  (for  the 
ninth  grade),  and  mechanical  drawing  (for  all  grades). 
The  boys  in  this  school  spend  three  hours  or  one-half  of 
the  school  day  in  these  try-out  courses. 

There  is  an  attempt  to  separate  the  try-out  and 
technical  activities  from  the  so-called  vocational  work 
in  the  Washington  Junior-High  School,  at  Rochester, 
N".  Y.  As  will  be  explained  in  more  detail  later,  the 
printing,  millwork,  pattern  making,  sheet  metal  work, 
painting  and  decorating,  and  mechanical  drawing  fac- 
ilities are  used  in  common  for  both  types  of  courses 
during  separate  periods,  while  the  cabinet  making,  ma- 
chine, electrical,  and  automobile  shops  are  reserved  es- 
pecially for  either  purpose. 

The  Thirtieth  Street  Junior-High  School,  at  Los 
Angeles,  California,  which  has  already  been  referred 
to  in  this  chapter,  is  organizing  its  activities  "so  that 
there  will  be  little  woodwork  in  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades."  This  school  has  organized  its  widely  varied 
try-out  courses  in  the  seventh  year  "to  consist  of  ten 
weeks  of  agriculture,  ten  weeks  of  mechanical  drawing, 
ten  weeks  of  typewriting,  and  ten  weeks  of  printing. 
These  courses  are  to  be  followed  in  the  eighth  year  by 
ten  weeks  of  sheet  metal,  ten  weeks  of  electrical  work, 
ten  weeks  of  concrete  work,  and  ten  weeks  of  plumbing. 
It  is  the  intention  to  have  the  ninth  year  courses  so 

50 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

organized  that  the  work  of  the  previous  grades  may  be 
worked  out  into  vocational  classes  for  the  higher 
grades."  Regarding  the  content  of  these  industrial- 
arts  activities,  Assistant  Supt.  Helen  S.  Watson  reports 
as  follows :  "In  all  of  this  work,  the  emphasis  is  placed 
upon  the  practical  side.  In  the  Boyle  Heights  Junior- 
High  Scl I.  for  example,  all  repairs  of  school  furni- 
ture and  locks :  making  of  keys ;  construction  of  sheh  ing, 
cupboards  and  tables  are  done  by  the  regular  classes. 
Concrete  workers  have  built  retaining  walls  and  repair- 
ed walks,  and  are  now  constructing  a  pit  in  the  machine 
room  for  the  installation  of  motor  and  shafting.  A 
lath  house,  including  the  installation  of  plumbing  and 
the  building  of  a  fence,  is  now  being  made  for  the  agri- 
cultural  department.  It  is  understood  that  at  least 
one-half  of  the  time  of  the  older  boys  may  be  spent  on 
work    for  the  school." 

How  Industrial-Arts  Activities  Are  Conducted. 

The  amount  of  emphasis  which  is  given  to  each 
element  in  these  and  other  try-out  courses  shows  even 
greater  variation  than  has  been  noted  in  the  activi- 
ties themselves.  However,  a  great  majority  of  the 
least  hampered  intermediate  and  junior-high  schools 
231  or  61  per  cent  of  those  which  reported — have 
organized  their  industrial-arts  courses  so  thai  each  con 
crete  experience  brings  boys  in  contact  with  information 
on  smiie  phase  of  the  conditions  and  processes  encount- 

51 


INDUSTRIAL    ARTS    AND 

ered  in  present-day  industry  and  occupations,  as  well  as 
with  the  materials,  tools  and  methods  of  manipulation 
in  the  activities  represented  at  the  school.  Regardless 
of  the  nature  of  the  project,  problem,  or  job—  whether 
it  happened  to  lie  a  division  of  concrete  construction 
carpentry,  electrical  work,  printing,  machine  shop, 
drafting,  or  any  other  industrial  pursuit— each  boy  in 
these  courses  gives  little  or  much  time  (approximately 
from  5  to  35  per  cent  of  the  total  time  allowed)  to 
such  types  of  closely-related  information  as  the  kinds 
and  properties  of  material  used;  the  particular  form  of 
design  and  construction  needed;  the  methods  of  manu- 
facture practiced  outside;  and  the  principles  and  facts 
affecting  the  conditions  and  relationships  under  which 
workers  work.  Nearly  all  of  the  manual  experiences, 
which  naturally  are  made  the  basis  of  opportunity  for 
giving  this  information  to  extend  the  boy's  industrial 
horizon,  result  in  useful  and  semi-commercial  products 
and  service. 

Basis  of  Semi-Commercial  Work. 
The  greater  part  of  this  semi-commercial  work 
(estimated  as  high  as  95  per  cent  in  some  schools)  is 
based  upon  the  construction  and  repairs  needed  in  the 
school  systems.  Only  a  few  of  the  schools  feel  free  to 
state  that  the  requirements  of  repair  or  productive  work 
in  their  systems  are  considered  second  in  importance  to 
the  pupils'  needs  beyond  these  immediate  experiences. 

52 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

Furthermore,  over  two-thirds  of  the  instructors,  in  the 

231  institutions  mentioned  above,  admit  that  they  can 
not  justify  the  time  and  effort  required  for  a  large  pro- 
portion of  this  construction  and  repair  work,  especially 
when  they  are  ordered  to  deliver  the  products  within  a 
limited  time.  The  reasons  which  were  given  mosl  fre- 
quently by  157  individuals  for  their  dissatisfaction  with 
the  over-emphasis  and  unregulated  demands  of  the 
school  system  upon  repair  and  maintenance  construction 
work,  are  summarized  in  Table  IV.  It  should  be  noted 
that  the  main  objections  are  to  the  effect  of  limiting  the 
industrial  experiences  to  the  manual  aspects  of  the 
work;  namely,  preventing  the  instruction  from  includ- 
ing a  larger  understanding  of  the  processes  and  condi- 
tions in  the  industries  represented,  by  failure  to  regu- 
late these  valuable  experiences  in  order  thai  the  pupils5 
needs  and  interests  mighl  receive  first  consideration. 

Nevertheless,  increasing  numbers  of  schools  are 
adding  other  concrete  experiences  besides  those  which 
tend  to  furnish  the  largesl  financial  return  in  materially 
reducing  the  annual  budget  for  repairs  and  production 
work.  These  new  industrial-arts  activities  seem  to  be 
allowing  a  larger  percentage  of  time  for  the  study  of 
those  methods,  conditions,  and  relationships  thai  are 
involved  in  the  divisions  of  industry  which  the  school 
experiences  represent.  Although  boys  of  this  age  are 
interested  primarily  in  the  various  phases  of  the  direct 

53 


INDUSTRIAL    ARTS    AND 


Table    IV.     Each   of    157    Individuals    Gives    Reasons 

for  Dissatisfaction  With  Continuous  Demands 

Upon  Industrial-Arts  Activities  for  Repair 

and  Productive  Work.1 

ITEM—  NO. 

Unregulated    requirements    limit   the    amount   of   in- 
struction given  to: 

1.  Technical  information  for  enlarging  the 
understanding  of  tools,  materials,  operations, 
and  principles  directly  related  to  the  shopwork.      37 

2.  Vocational  information  for  illuminating 
the  school  experiences  by  giving  insight  into 
commercial  processes  and  methods  employed  in 
economic    production 28 

3.  Occupational  information  for  helping  to 
appreciate  and  judge  labor  conditions,  import- 
ance of  work,  health  problems,  future  opportun- 
ities, qualifications  and  training 21 

Narrow  limitations  in   maintenance  needs  of  schools 
tend  to: 

1.  Prevent  representation  of  proper  forms 
of  industrial  experiences  to  meet  various  needs 

of  pupils    32 

2.  Require  instructors  to  do  much  of  the 
planning  and  construction  work  for  pupils 17 

3.  Cause  difficult  operations  to  frequently 
precede  the  simpler  ones    8 

Extended    repetition    cf    same    operations    and    pro- 
cesses seem  to: 

1.  Give  too  highly  specialized  skill  for 
boys  of  this  age    14 

2.  Cause  adolescent  boys  to  lose  interest  in 
work  with  little  variation   11 

3.  Limit  scope  of  acquaintance  with  typi- 
cal tools,  machines,  materials,  and  processes  of 
manipulation     7 


^hese  numbers  will  total  more  than  157.  as  several  individuals 
reported  more  than  one  reason. 

54 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

manual  experience,  more  and  more  instructors  have 
come  to  recognize  the  need  for  vitalizing  the  manipu- 
lative aspects  of  the  activities  by  introducing  thought- 
provoking  situations.  Both  projects  and  problems  in 
these  courses  include  a  breadth  of  instruction  which 
stimulates  thought  for  better  understanding,  insight, 
and  appreciation.  A  few  representative  types  of  the 
directly  and  indirectly  related  information,  which  boys 
acquire  profitably  as  they  plan  and  construe!  products 
having  commercial  value,  arc  listed  in  the  first  section 
Table  IV. 

Conducting  Representative  Industrial  Courses. 
It  should  be  explained  that  the  following  reports 
dealing  with  three  widely  varied  types  of  successfully 
organized  industrial  arts  courses  at  Hastings,  New 
York,  at  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  and  at  Rochester,  New 
Fork,  (as  well  as  the  several  carefully  planned  and 
tried  courses,  unit.-,  and  projects  which  are  to  appear 
in  the  next  and  last  chapter  of  this  hook")  were  col- 
■d  for  the  1921  Yearbook  by  the  Industrial  Arts 
Committee13  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of 
Education.  Since  it  did  not  prove  expedient  for  the 
Society  to  publish  Part  TTI  of  its  1921  Yearbook, 
which  was  to  have  included  these  suggestive  contribu- 
tions, it  has  been  recommended  and  urged  that,  if  nec- 
essary, this  report  on   experiments  for  developing  in- 

'  The  Committee  appointed  to  collect  these  successfully  tried 
units  waH  composed  of  I>.  A.  Iterr,  G.  H.  Harjritt,  and  A.  H. 
Etlgerton.   Chairman. 

55 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS    AND 

clustrial  courses  and  projects  to  meet  the  needs  of  early 
adolescence  should  be  revised  for  publication. 

Types  of  Industrial  Arts  Conducted  in  Smaller  Commun- 
ities— An  Illustration. 

Diversified  Industrial  Activities  at  Hastings,  N. 
Y.10  In  the  seventh  grade  at  Hastings,  N.  Yv  concrete 
construction  is  taken  up  as  the  main  activity.  Brief 
talks  are  given  on  the  manufacture  of  cement  early 
in  the  course.  This  naturally  follows  the  story  from 
the  rough  rock  to  the  finished  products,  as  developed 
in  the  shop.  The  forms  for  the  simple  concrete  pro- 
ducts involving  mass  construction  are  made  from  wood 
by  the  pupils.  Some  of  the  boys  work  individually  on 
problems  needed  for  the  home,  while  others  work  in 
groups  on  larger  projects,  many  of  which  are  made  for 
the  school. 

Running  along  parallel  with  the  construction 
work,  short  talks  also  are  given  on  the  proper  methods 
of  preparing  the  forms  for  concrete,  the  kind  of  lumber 
to  use,  etc.  The  ingredients  required  to  make  con- 
crete, their  selection  for  desired  mixtures,  and  methods 
of  testing  likewise  are  taken  up  and  followed  by  the 
actual  proportioning  of  materials,  mixing,  placing,  de- 
positing, and  protecting.  After  having  completed  pro- 
jects in  mass  construction,  reinforced  and  hollow  con- 
struction problems  are  attempted.    It  has  been  the  aim 


"Contributed    by    Wm.    H.    Peters,    Head    of    Industrial    Arts 
Department,    Hastings,    N.   Y. 

56 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

to  have  this  work  in  the  school  shop  of  the  same  na- 
ture as  the  smaller  construction  work  in  the  industry; 
but,  as  this  is  not  possible  in  all  cases  with  a  small 
amount  of  equipment,  trips  are  made  occasionally  to 
places  where  concrete  construction  is  in  operation. 
Notes  are  taken  on  the  practical  ways  of  doing  this 
work  on  a  larger  scale. 

In  the  eighth  grade  at  this  school,  sheet  metal 
work  is  introduced.  Starting  with  the  making  of  a 
simple  biscuit  cutter  from  a  discarded  soup  can,  the 
hoys  learn  the  principles  of  soldering.  They  have  the 
experience  of  cutting  and  folding  tin  and  soon  become 
familiar  with  the  metal  working  tools.  A  cup  is  then 
made,  and  the  method  of  making  a  flange,  or  turning 
the  edge,  is  explained.  Coffee  pots  or  watering  cans 
have  been  found  to  be  good  problems  for  bringing  in 
riveting.  The  making  of  spouts  affords  splendid  oppor- 
tunity for  planning  developments,  as  does  the  making 
of  a  funnel.  Then  after  making  a  frying  pan  with  a 
rolled  edge  from  a  round  gallon  can;  each  boy  selects 
his  projects  and  shows  no  end  of  interest  in  making  up 
such  problems  as  match  boxes,  lanterns,  dust  pans, 
stationery  boxes,  ash  trays,  and  such  toys  as  automobile 
trucks,  tractors,  steam  rollers,  locomotives,  and  boats. 
Figure  III  shows  a  few  of  these  sheet  metal  problems. 

The  material  for  this  work  during  the  past  year 
has  consisted  mostly   of  discarded  tin  cans.     Several 

57 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS   AND 

thousand  of  these  have  been  brought  in  by  the  boys. 
Aside  from  the  pleasure  and  knowledge  derived  from 
the  actual  making  of  the  tin  products,  perhaps  the 
greatest  satisfaction  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  boys  are 


FIG.  III.   A  FEW  OF  THE  SHEET  METAL  PROBLEMS  WHICH 
.  .  WERE  ELECTED  AND  DEVELOPED  DURING  THE 
LATTER  PART  OF  THE  COURSE. 

using  materials  which  usually  are  thrown  away.  You 
might  say  that  this  is  making  "something  out  of  noth- 
ing"; thus  eliminating  bills  which  would  otherwise 
be  incurred.  In  this  work  the  boys  use  their  own  ini- 
tiative after  being  shown  the  simplest  principles.  Fig. 
IV  shows  a  boy  making  bathroom  fixtures  for  a  doll- 
house.  The  combination  of  simplicity  with  the  chance 
to  use  creative  ability  has  proved  of  untold  value. 
There  was  such  a  great  amount  of  interest  taken  in 
this  kind  of  work  by  the  boys  that  many  have  asked  to 
do  extra  work.     As  a  result,  many  ingenious  projects, 

58 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

some  of  which  required  a  knowledge  of  mechanics,  have 
been  worked  up. 

In  the  ninth  grade  course  electricity  i-  introduced. 
Sets  of  apparatus  are  made  here  in  order  to  cover  the 


mm  ~**?z% 

•  IBM 

FIG.    IV.      EIGHTH    GRADE    BOY    AT   HASTINGS.    NEW    YORK, 

MAKING   BATHROOM    FIXTURES    FOR    A   DOLL   HOUSE 

PROJECT    IN    THE    SHEET    METAL    CLASS. 

important  principles  of  electricity.  The  constructions 
are  kepi  as  simple  as  possible  in  order  that  the  theory 
given  in  talks,  which  parallel  the  shopwork,  may  be 
clear.  As  a  first  project,  a  simple  telegraph  sounder  is 
made  from  a  scrap  of  wood  for  a  base,  two  twenty 
penny  nails  for  the  core  of  the  magnet,  a  piece  of  tirj 


59 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS    AND 

(from  an  old  tin  can),  which  is  folded  and  shaped  for 
the  armature.  The  key  and  switch  are  made  from 
scrap  pieces  of  tin  and  wood.  When  two  boys  have 
completed  these  instruments,  they  can  get  great  inter- 
est in  setting  them  up  to  form  a  complete  telegraph 
system  between  two  rooms.  Next  a  buzzer  is  made  of 
as  simple  construction  as  the  sounder  already  des- 
cribed. This  is  followed  by  the  making  of  a  push  but- 
ton, which  is  as  easily  constructed  as  the  key  mentioned 
above. 

Later  a  toy  motor  is  introduced  with  good  re- 
sults. The  experience  of  adjusting  and  hunting  elec- 
trical trouble  in  this  problem  affords  enough  incen- 
tive to  guide  boys  through  the  principles  of  the  motor. 
After  completing  these  problems,  they  select  and  make 
projects  which  are  of  particular  interest  to  them. 
Many  ingenious  instruments  have  been  turned  out  in 
the  form  of  shocking  coils,  burglar  alarm,  wireless  sets, 
etc.  The  boys  seem  to  take  a  great  interest  in  these 
problems,  as  well  as  in  working  out  different  experi- 
ments on  an  electro  board  which  contains  a  number  of 
possible  hook-ups. 

TYPES   OF  JUNIOR-HIGH   SCHOOL  INDUSTRIAL 

ACTIVITIES   IN   LARGE  SYSTEMS. 
Seventh  Grade  Industrial  Arts  at  the  Ben  Blewett  Junior- 
High  School,  St.  Louis,  Mo.11 

The    shopwork    at   the   Ben    Blewett    Junior-High 


"Contributed    by    G.    H.    Hargitt,   in   charge   of   industrial-arts 
Classes  at  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

60 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

School  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  is  organized  into  two  divi- 
sions :  First,  the  seventh  grade  which  has  compulsory 
shop  courses,  and  the  eighth  and  ninth  grades  which 
are  elective.  After  a  boy  has  taken  a  year  in  the  ele- 
mentary shop,  he  then  has  an  opportunity  to  choose 
between  the  technical  arts,  science,  commercial,  art, 
and  classical  courses.  This  reporl  will,  therefore,  only 
discuss  the  seventh  grade  shopwork  and  study. 

This  community,  which  is  entirely  residential  and 
draws  from  a  class  of  students  whose  parents,  to  a 
large  extent,  will  encourage  higher  education,  presents 
a  problem  which  is  quite  different  and  difficult.  Most 
of  these  children  live  in  apartment  houses,  where  they 
are  deprived  of  the  privileges  of  tinkering  and  experi- 
menting in  shops  of  their  own.  It  is  believed  that  all 
boys  want  or  should  have  this  experience,  so  Tor  this 
reason,  we  are  giving  them  this  one  big  chance  of  their 
school  career  for  guided  experimenting. 

We  try  to  make  a  cycle  of  the  material  with  which 
they  work,  as  much  as  possible,  by  encouraging  that 
they  first  of  all  use  wood  as  their  medium  of  construc- 
tion. This  is  followed  by  the  use  of  sheet  metal  and 
soldering.  Casting  of  soft  metal  in  die-casting  molds 
follows  this,  and  finally  they  work  in  concrete  and  in 
electricity.  We  hope  to  have  each  and  every  boy  come 
in  eoutaet  with  all  of  these  differenl  media  of  construc- 
tion some  tiiut  during  his  work  in  the  seventh  grade 

61 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS    AND 

The  pupil,  too,  has  the  actual  shop  experience, 
with  the  added  responsibilities  of  having  complete 
charge  of  the  issuance  of  tools  in  the  tool  room  by 
means  of  a  check  system.  He  is  made  to  feel  that  he 
is  responsible  for  the  tools  and  that  he  should  see  that 
they  come  back  to  the  tool  racks  in  as  good  condition 
as  when  they  were  given  out.  These  are  just  further 
steps  of  the  aim  for  making  the  boy  feel  that  he  is  a 
part  of  the  governing  body,  as  well  as  the  one  to  be 
subject  to  rule  and  order. 

Wherever  possible,  it  is  the  endeavor  to  have  the 
work  so  arranged  that  the  boys  make  use  of  their  pro- 
jects to  help  them  pass  their  merit  badge  tests  for  the 
-rout  organizations  and  for  clubs.  All  of  these  things 
solicit  the  closer  cooperation  of  boys  by  making  them 
leel  that  there  is  a  connection  between  all  of  these  ac- 
tivities. A  few  excellent  projects  of  this  type  are  the 
chemistry  sets,  the  heliograph,  the  telegraph  set,  the 
wireless,  the  naturalist's  box,  the  level,  and  the  chart 
board,  having  the  compass  for  charting  the  hikes  made 
by  the  club. 

Another  project,  which  proved  its  worth  last 
spring,  was  the  organization  of  a  Yacht  Club  previous 
to  the  races  between  the  Shamrock  and  the  Resolute. 
We  studied  the  merits  of  the  many  types  of  sailing 
craft  with  reference  to  speed  and  ability  to  weather  a 
storm.     The  boys  became  so  enthused  that  they  even 

62 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

conducted  a  few  races  among  themselves  and  then  dis- 
cussed the  merits  and   faults  of  the  various  boats. 

The  organizing  of  a  Railroad  Club-,  which  ran 
through  the  whole  of  last  year,  was  the  most  successful 
of  our  projects,  not  so  much  from  the  skill  and  techni- 
que of  the  project  as  from  the  vast  amount  of  infor- 
mation and  satisfaction  which  the  boys  derived.  We 
elected  the  officers  of  the  Railroad  Corporation  with  it- 
executive  board,  and  this  in  turn  had  its  subdivisions. 
There  was  a  superintendent  of  road  construction;  a 
superintendent  of  block  signals;  one  of  the  construc- 
tion of  cars;  one  For  the  engines;  and  one  for  the 
bridges.  They  met  and  decided  on  the  scale  upon 
which  to  build  the  model  railroad.  A  scale  of  one- 
half  inch  to  the  foot  was  agreed  upon.  They  then  pro- 
ceeded to  choose  the  helpers  and  assistants  from  the 
remainder  of  the  club  members  and  began  on  the  devel- 
opment of  the  drawings  and  plans.  A  book  of  plans 
and  specifications,  published  by  the  Railroad  Builders* 
Supply  Companies,  was  procured  and  used  as  a  guide. 
The  boys  made  several  trips  to  the  railroad  yards. 
switches,  bridges,  and  signaling  lowers.  After  watch- 
ing the  different  operations  of  the  parts  in  which  they 
were  interested,  they  brought  information  to  the  club 
which  aided  them  in  the  construction  of  their  projects. 
The  benefits  derived  from  these  studies  were  not  local 
entirely,  as  the  boys  in  their  enthusiasm  solicited  the 

63 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS   AND 

interest  and  curiosity  of  the  parents  to  the  extent  that 
many  of  them  visited  the  meetings  of  the  club  and  con- 
tributed of  their  knowledge  and  skill  to  aid  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  main  project. 

Industrial    Department    of    the    Washington    Junior-High 
School,  Rochester,  N.  Y.1" 

At  Eochester,  X.  Y.,  the  Washington  Junior-High 
School  gives  three  types  of  industrial  courses,  which 
are  called  general  try-out,  industrial  technical,  and 
vocational.  The  general  try-out  course  is  for  boys  in 
the  7A  grade,  since  a  general  requirement  in  this  grade 
is  that  every  boy  shall  have  one  period  of  shopwork  a 
day.  The  aim  of  this  work  is  to  give  the  boy  a  general 
idea  of  what  industrial  work  is  like,  so  that  he  will  be 
able  to  make  a  more  intelligent  choice  of  his  course 
when  he  enters  the  8B  grade.  The  industrial  technical 
course  fulfills  a  double  purpose.  It  is  both  a  prevoca- 
tional  training  period  and  a  general  industrial  infor- 
mation course.  This  course  is  elective  for  boys  in  the 
8B  grade  or  above,  and  it  differs  from  the  regular  aca- 
demic "foreign  language"  course  only  in  the  fact  that 
one  period  a  day  of  shopwork  is  substituted  for  the 
foreign  language.  The  boys  spend  one  term  in  a  cer- 
tain shop  and  then  change  to  a  different  shop  for  the 
next  term,  so  that  at  graduation  from  the  Junior-High 


"Contributed    by    R.    Parkhill,    vocational    coordinator,    Roch- 
ester,  N.   Y. 

64 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

School  they  have  a  definite  knowledge  of  at  least  five 
different  kinds  of  industrial  work.  This  course  is  pre- 
paratory for  the  regular  high  school  and  a  "cross-over" 
may  be  made  to  other  courses  at  any  stage  without  loss 
of  time. 

The  aim  of  the  Vocational  Course  is  primarily 
trade  training,  but,  after  completing  a  two  years'  course 
in  this  department,  a  boy  may  enter  the  Rochester  Shop 
or  Trade  School  and  continue  his  work  for  three  years, 
at  the  end  of  which  time  he  obtains  the  State  Indus- 
trial High  School  Diploma.  A  boy  may  enter  this 
course  at  any  time  during  the  Junior-High  School  at- 
tendance provided  he  is  over  14  years  of  age.  Upon 
entrance,  the  boy  and  his  parents  choose  the  trade 
which  he  wishes  to  follow.  He  is  then  given  a  ten 
weeks'  intensive  try-out  period  in  that  particular  trade. 
If  he  shows  ability  and,  in  the  judgment  of  the  in- 
structor, will  "make  good",  he  continues  in  that  kind 
of  work  for  two  years.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  in- 
structor believes  that  the  boy  is  unfitted  for  the  partic- 
ular trade  which  he  has  chosen,  he  is  then  given  an- 
other intensive  try  out  in  some  other  type  of  work. 
This  try-out  scheme  is  carried  on  until  the  boy  finds 
his  niche  or  until  it  is  definitely  decided  that  he  is  by 
nature  unfitted  for  industrial  trade  work.  This  course 
varies  greatly  from  the  industrial  technical  one  in  that 
boys   do  not  carry  on   the   regular  junior-high   school 

65 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS   AND 

work.  The  day  is  divided  into  three  hours  of  shop- 
work,  one  hour  and  a  half  of  bookwork,  including 
English,  history,  civics,  and  hygiene,  45  minutes  of 
related  shop  mathematics,  and  45  minutes  of  related 
mechanical  drawing.  It  should  be  understood  that  the 
boys  in  this  course  are  those  who  intend  to  drop  out  of 
school  at  16,  or  before,  and  who  desire  an  intensive 
trade  training  before  going  to  work.  Last  spring  over 
70  per  cent  of  the  boys  in  this  department  were  beyond 
the  legal  age  for  leaving  school,  and  it  is  safe  to  say 
that  nearly  all  of  them  would  have  left  had  they  not 
been  receiving  definite  trade  training. 

In  order  to  care  for  these  varying  types  of  shop- 
work,  the  organization  of  the  industrial  department  is 
somewhat  complicated.  Nine  shops  with  eleven  teach- 
ers now  take  care  of  all  shop  work.  This  is  accomp- 
lished by  using  certain  shops  for  vocational  work  half 
a  day  and  for  try-out  work  the  remainder  of  the  day. 
In  addition  to  the  shop  teachers,  the  industrial  depart- 
ment has  two  instructors  for  mechanical  drawing  and 
one  for  shop  mathematics.  At  the  present  time,  ma- 
chine shop,  electricity,  and  automobile  repair  are 
strictly  vocational  shops,  while  printing,  mill  work, 
pattern-making,  sheet  metal  work,  and  painting  and 
decorating  are  vocational  only  one-half  day  and  then 
used  for  technical  and  try-out  work.  One  teacher  in 
mechanical  drawing  is  handling  vocational  classes  only, 

66 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

while  another  is  giving  pari  vocational  and  part  try- 
out  drawing.  The  teachers  of  shop  mathematics  and 
vocational  bookwork  are  handling  strictly  vocational 
groups.  In  no  case  are  vocational  boys  and  try-out 
boys  combined  in  the  same  class. 

The  actual  shopwork  given  in  both  try-out  and 
vocational  clas>c.~  i-  done  on  standard  practice  ma- 
chines and,  so  far  as  possible,  parallels  actual  factory 
conditions  of  the  better  type.  All  work  given  is  prac- 
tical and  usually  of  a  productive  nature.  Production, 
however,  takes  a  subordinate  position,  as  it  is  never 
allowed  to  interfere  with  the  all-round  development  of 
the  boy.  The  industrial  department  in  the  school,  after 
all,  is  essentially  a  school  rather  than  a  factory. 


d7 


III.     Methods  of  Offering  Courses  and 

Projects 

Problems  in  Respecting  Individual  Differences 

LA11GE  number  of  perplexing  problems 
confront  those  who  conscientiously  under- 
take to  select,  organize,  and  offer  repre- 
sentative industrial  activities  designed  to 
meet  the  needs  of  early  adolescence.  There 
always  will  be  various  difficulties  which  are  involved  in 
properly  reflecting  and  interpreting  the  many  inherent 
conditions  and  relationships  in  modern  productive  in- 
dustry. But,  in  order  to  realize  successful  instruction 
in  the  industrial  activities  represented,  the  psycholog- 
ical and  physiological  growth  of  the  pupils  must  be 
recognized  and  respected  during  this  all-important  per- 
iod of  development.  Many  useful  methods  have  been 
devised  for  selecting  and  organizing  the  various  try-out 
or  exploratory  types  of  industrial  courses,  in  order  to 
help  boys  prepare  themselves  for  the  demands  of  many- 
sided  service,  as  well  as  for  intelligent  citizenship. 
These  helpful  suggestions  were  reported  in  the  pre- 
ceding pages  dealing  with  the  investigation  of  379 
progressive  intermediate  and  junior-high  schools,  which 
are  located  in  21.  different  states. 

This  investigation  and  the  majority  of  the  recent 
school  surveys  make  it  evident  that  the  influence  of 
traditional  practices,  rather  than  the  actual  needs  of  our 
new  and  rapidly  changing  social  conditions,  still  deter- 

68 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

mines  too  largely  the  kind  and  amount  of  emphasis 
which  the  industrial  experiences  receive  in  much  of 
the  upper  grade  curricula.  The  tendency  to  covet  this 
familiar  conception  of  education,  which  has  the  impart- 
ing and  mastery  of  that  great  store  of  knowledge  in 
school  textbooks  as  its  aim  or  purpose,  undoubtedly  is 
an  inheritance  from  those  early  days  before  the  sum 
total  of  the  things  worth  knowing  had  increased  many 
hundredfold.  We  have  an  abundance  of  early  and  recent 
records  which  share  this  attitude  toward  education  with 
Oliver  Goldsmith,  who  in  his  writings  modestly  ex- 
pressed a  yearning  "to  show"  his  "book-learned  skill." 
Despite  the  many  evidences  of  this  inheritance  which 
still  exist  in  our  American  school  systems,  it  is  obvious 
thai  the  growing  demand  for  education  today  is  not  so 
much  for  the  mere  accumulation  of  a  mass  of  facts  as  it 
is  for  the  ability  to  reason  from  facts  and  to  learn  where 
to  find  valuable  information  when  needed.  At  any  rate, 
our  present  difficulties  in  meeting  the  needs  and  re- 
specting the  interests  of  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  year 
boys  can  not  be  solved  satisfactorily  unless  a  reasonable 
amount  of  time  is  allowed  for  giving  instruction  in  a 
fairly  wide  range  of  profitable  shop  experiences  and  the 
wealth  of  related  information  involved. 

Industrial-Arts   Instruction    and    Characteristics    of    Early 

Adolescence. 

Much  has  been  said  and  written  by  G.  Stanley  Hall 

and  other  students  of  psychology  regarding  the  charac- 

69 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS   AND 

teristics  of  early  adolescence,  but  a  surprisingly  small 
amount  of  suggestive  material  is  available,  as  yet,  for 
aiding  those  responsible  for  making  the  practical  appli- 
cations which  are  so  essential  to  efficient  industrial  arts 
instruction.  The  need  for  adapting  the  methods  of 
teaching  the  industrial  activities  to  the  peculiar  char- 
acteristics of  boys  from  12  to  15  years  of  age  is  obvious 
to  all  close  observers.  While  the  nature  of  the  instruc- 
tion during  this  period  will  be  determined  partially  by 
the  variable  types  of  activity  represented  in  the  differ- 
ent schools,  nevertheless,  it  is  now  recognized  that  the 
most  effective  results  can  be  realized  only  when  the 
methods  are  flexible  enough  to  provide  for  the  individ- 
ual differences,  as  well  as  for  the  varying  needs  of  the 
differentiated  groups. 

The  greater  part  of  the  schools  that  reported  on 
this  phase  of  their  instruction  expressed  some  need  for 
representing  a  variety  of  industrial  pursuits  so  that  the 
experiences  will  be  well  adapted  to  the  problems  of  re- 
vealing capacities  and  developing  special  interests  and 
powers,  which  are  in  keeping  with  the  general  aims  and 
purposes  of  their  respective  school  organizations.  Sev- 
eral even  insist  that  this  cannot  be  accomplished  fully 
unless  allowance  is  made  for  freedom  in  choice  and  for 
individual  experimentation.  Others  place  the  main  em- 
phasis upon  such  methods  for  supplementing  the  school 
activities  as  excursions  to  study  the  larger  construc- 
tions in  productive  industry,  which  they  believe  will  do 

70 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

most  in  helping  boys  of  early  adolescence  to  discover  the 
value  of  their  inclinations,  either  in  positive  or  negative 
ways.  Not  only  do  some  of  the  schools  provide  oppor- 
tunity for  each  boy  to  try  out,  discover,  and  develop  any 
-pocial  ability  for  doing  and  managing  industrial  work, 
but  they  also  furnish  information  for  maturing  the 
pupil's  judgment  of  industrial  problems  and  relation- 
ships. The  reports  indicate  that  the  best  results  have  been 
gained  by  interpreting  that  valuable  directly  and  in- 
directly related  industrial  knowledge  which  is  an  out- 
growth  of  the  manipulative  aspects  of  shop  experience. 
These  rapidly  developing  courses  thus  attempt  to  make 
provision  for  constructive  thinking,  as  well  as  to  give 
contact  with  typical  materials,  tools,  processes,  and  shop 
organization.  The  psychological  foundation  for  this 
procedure  is  sound,  as  much  of  the  educational  value  in 
these  industrial  experiences  will  come  from  the  various 
habits,  attitudes,  and  appreciations  established  in  meet- 
ing both  the  simple  and  complex  situations  which  arise 
with  the  proper  responses. 

Relation  of  Likes  and  Dislikes  to  Abilities  and  Inabilities. 

The  likes  and  dislikes  which  are  fostered  by  boys  of 
this  age,  as  well  as  their  correspondent  relation  to  abil- 
ities and  inabilities,  have  an  important  bearing  on  the 
methods  of  instruction  given  in  the  industrial-arts  ac- 
tivities. A  few  years  ago,  Dr.  Edward  L.  Thorn  dike  of 
Columbia  University  measured  the  permanence  in  the 

71 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS   AND 

interests  of  one  hundred  individuals,  and  also  the  re- 
semblance between  interest  in  the  upper  grades  and  ca- 
pacity in  the  college  period,  with  the  following  conclu- 
sions: "These  facts  unanimously  witness  to  the  im- 
portance of  early  interests.  They  are  shown  to  be  far 
from  fickle  and  evanescent.  On  the  contrary,  the  order 
of  interests  at  twenty  shows  six-tenths  of  perfect  re- 
semblance to  the  order  from  eleven  to  fourteen,  and  has 
changed  therefrom  little  more  than  the  order  of  abilities 
has  changed.  It  would  indeed  be  hard  to  find  any  fea- 
ture of  a  human  being  which  was  a  much  more  perman- 
ent fact  of  his  nature  than  his  relative  degrees  of  inter- 
est in  different  lines  of  thought  and  action.  Interests 
are  also  shown  to  be  symptomatic,  to  a  very  great  extent, 
of  present  and  future  capacity  or  ability.  Either  be- 
cause one  likes  what  he  can  do  well,  or  because  one  gives 
zeal  and  effort  to  what  he  likes,  or  because  interest  and 
ability  are  both  symptoms  of  some  fundamental  feature 
of  the  individual's  original  nature,  or  because  of  the 
combined  action  of  all  three  of  these  factors,  interest 
and  ability  are  bound  very  close  together.  The  bond  is 
so  close  that  either  may  be  used  as  a  symptom  for  the 
other  almost  as  well  as  for  itself."14 

Successes  and  Failures  Reveal  Aptitudes  and  Abilities. 

Although  some  promising  psychological  devices  and 
tests  have  been  developed  for  selecting  persons  for  spe- 


,4Thorndike,   E.    L.     "The   Permanence   of   Interests   and   Their 
Relation   to   Abilities."   Popular   Science  Monthly,   November,  1912. 

72 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

cific  occupations,  there  is  no  better  method  in  use  at 
present  for  discovering  the  boy's  capacity  for  each  type 
of  industrial  experience  represented  in  the  school  work- 
shop than  to  observe  the  degree  of  success  and  failure  as 
he  develops  each  division  of  the  work  and  study.  A 
suggestive  experiment  also  lias  been  conducted  with  -.'1 
apprenticed  boys,  who  ranged  in  age  from  12  to  17 
years,  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  or  not  those  using 
hand  tools  in  a  systematic  and  workmanlike  manner  in 
one  division  of  industry  can  do  tasks  of  equal  difficulty 
in  other  industrial  pursuits  with  about  the  same  facility. 
"It  was  discovered,  beyond  a  doubt,  that  those  who  were 
most  systematic  and  workmanlike  in  the  making  of 
working  drawings  and  wooden  patterns  with  hand  tools 
likewise  were  most  successful  during  their  first  six 
months  in  the  machine  shop,  blacksmith  shop,  foundry, 
boiler  shop,  pipe  and  sheet  metal  shop,  or  wood  shop, 
where  they  issued,  accounted  for  and  used  hand  tools."1'"' 
The  results  of  this  experiment,  which  were  based  upon 
the  individual  judgments  of  several  instructors  and  me- 
chanics, suggest  that  estimations  of  capacity  do  not  dif- 
fer very  widely  when  made  by  persons  who  understand 
boys  and  the  industrial  activities  in  question.  And  when 
aptitudes  and  abilities  have  been  determined  even  ten- 
tatively, these  can  be  tried  out  and  developed  sufficiently 
to  aid  in  educational  and  vocational  guidance  as  the  try- 

'"Edjrerton.  A.  H..  "Diversified  Industrial  Activities  as  a 
Mentis  of  Educational  and  Vocational  Guidance  for  Seventh. 
Eijrhth.  and  Ninth  Vear  Bovs."  Industrial-Arts  M.iKazine.  October, 
1917,   Vol.  VI,  pp.  390-392. 

73 


INDUSTRIAL    ARTS    AND 

out  courses  progress  in  difficulty.  In  this  way,  individ- 
ual interests,  inclinations,  and  capacities  are  not  only 
revealed  but  are  also  continually  checked  and  developed 
as  the  activities  become  more  intensive. 

Methods  of  Offering  Industrial-Arts  Courses  and  Projects. 

Because  of  the  limited  time  available  (six  to  twelve 
iveeks  in  a  large  proportion  of  the  school  systems  investi- 
gated), there  is  a  tendency  for  most  of  these  courses  to 
include  definite  types  of  work  to  be  done  by  all  pupils, 
However,  this  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  all  pupil? 
must  develop  the  same  problems  and  projects,  or  com- 
plete the  minimum  requirements  in  one  kind  of  activity 
before  taking  up  work  in  another.  Some  of  the  indus- 
trial departments  even  allow  pupils  upon  entering  new 
types  of  work,  to  choose  between  several  introductory 
problems  at  hand,  or  to  substitute  work  of  equal  diffi- 
culty. This  also  is  the  practice  of  a  number  of  schools 
in  connection  with  outside  projects,  after  the  boys  have 
facility  for  doing  a  satisfactory  grade  of  workmanship. 
Tn  addition  to  the  individual  projects  and  problems, 
opportunity  also  is  given  in  a  number  of  the  schools  for 
trying  out  qualities  of  leadership  and  cooperation  in 
managing  construction  work  and  groups  of  workers. 
While  the  student-foreman  organization  is  the  plan 
ordinarily  employed  to  promote  this  form  of  group  ac- 
tivity, there  seems  to  be  very  little  uniformity  at  present 

74 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

either  in  the  scheme  of  organizing  or  the  method  of  con- 
ducting  this  promising  type  of  work. 

The  project  method  of  learning,18  which  has  re- 
ceived such  wide  interpretation  and  publicity  during  the 
past  few  years,  is  favored  in  principle  by  over  90  per 
cent  of  the  industrial-arts  teachers  in  303  of  the  inter- 
mediate and  junior-high  schools  studied.  As  would  be 
expected,  different  degrees  of  emphasis  are  given  to  the 
relative  importance  and  desirability  of  having  the  pur- 
posing and  planning  of  the  projects  done  by  the  boys, 
especially  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades.  A  few  of 
the  instructors  still  require  the  boys  to  work  largely 
from  specifications  and  to  do  their  work  in  a  certain  pre- 
scribed way,  thus  allowing  little  opportunity  for  each 
pupil  to  set  up  purposes  or  objectives  and  to  develop 
plans  for  meeting  the  difficulties  in  their  execution  and 
for  solving  the  problems  to  get  results.  However,  the 
great  majority  of  these  instructors  are  attempting  to  im- 
prove upon  this  traditional  method,  which  undoubtedly 
has  robbed  many  boys  of  the  larger  values  in  the  educa- 
tional process  by  over-emphasizing  both  the  following  of 
directions  and  manipulative  skill  in  the  tool  processes. 
Although  the  importance  of  skill  and  dexterity  is  recog- 
nized by  those  who  have  adopted  the  project-problem 
method  of  procedure,  it  is  insisted  that  a  proper  amount 


"Kilpatrick,  Wm.  H. :  Teachers  College  Record,  Columbia 
University,  Vol.  21,  pp.  319-335;  and  Sneddon,  David:  School  and 
Society,   Vol.  4,   pp.  419-423. 

75 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS    AND 

of  technique  can  be  realized  and  vitalized  through  pro- 
fitable experiences  which  stimulate  thinking  and  reason- 
ing, as  well  as  industry. 

This  method  of  teaching  requires  the  instructor 
to  analyze,  simplify,  and  adapt  subject  matter  to  aid 
pupils  in  securing  suitable  information  to  meet  the 
somewhat  varied  situations  which  arise  in  their  con- 
struction problems.  In  addition  to  the  necessary  tech- 
nical information,  which  aids  pupils  in  understanding 
the  methods  and  processes  involved  in  their  work,  a  part 
of  the  educational  value  undoubtedly  comes  from  ob- 
serving tools  in  use,  samples  and  pictures  of  commercial 
products,  projects  in  various  stages  of  completion, 
charts  of  industry,  and  the  like.  It  also  is  found  desir- 
able to  have  an  abundance  of  illustrated,  descriptive  ma- 
terial always  available  for  the  purpose  of  helping  hoys 
fo  understand  and  appreciate  economic  products,  allied 
occupations,  and  vital  relationships  in  each  phase  of  in- 
dustry sampled.  When  planned  carefully,  such  devices 
as  excursions,  motion  pictures,  class  discussions,  student 
reports,  talks  by  specialists,  and  class  or  group  demon- 
strations gain  the  interest  and  offer  possibilities  in  fur- 
thering achievement  and  success. 

The  instructor  sometimes  finds  it  advantageous  to 
resort  to  shop  tricks  and  kinks,  in  order  to  form  the  de- 
sired oonds  in  the  teaching  process.     In  demonstrating 

76 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

the  proper  uses  of  certain  tools,  for  example,  he  might 
get  the  hest  results  in  determining  habits  and  attitudes 
by  showing  their  incorrect  as  well  as  their  correct  uses, 
in  order  that  the  boys  may  thoroughly  appreciate  the 
possible  difficulties  in  the  work  provided  they  do  not  use 
the  tools  correctly.  The  results  of  experiments  to  as- 
certain the  best  methods  for  such  work  show  that  where 
boys  are  made  conscious  of  the  trouble  which  may  be  ex- 
perienced or  avoided,  by  using  tools  either  incorrectly  or 
correctly,  there  are  few  that  do  not  exercise  care  to  save 
themselves  unnecessary  waste  in  time  and  energy. 
"There  is  a  tendency  for  teachers  to  depend  too  much 
upon  verbal  explanations,  because  of  the  convenience  of 
words  and  the  immediate  economy  of  time  that  results 
from  their  use.  If  words  will  give  the  desired  clear- 
ness, use  them  by  all  means;  but,  if  nothing  more  than 
an  inadequate  notion  will  result  from  such  explanation, 
the  teacher  has  made  a  poor  choice  to  get  results."17 
Regardless  of  which  of  these  methods  are  chosen  for 
offering  a  specific  unit  of  industrial  arts  instruction,  it 
is  obvious  that  an  unnecessary  waste  of  time  and  effort 
is  certain  to  result  from  forming  wrong  habits,  inac- 
curacy, or  forming  no  definite  habits  at  all  in  the  work 
:md  studv  covered. 


"Edgerton,  A.  H.  "Experimental  Work  In  the  School  Shop 
as  a  Means  of  Industrial  Efficiency,"  Industrial-Arts  Magazine, 
April,   1915,   Vol.   Ill,    pp.   101-103. 

77 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS   AND 

SUCCESSFULLY    TRIED    UNIT    COURSES    IN 
LARGE  AND  SMALL  SYSTEMS. 

Eighth  Grade  Prevocational  or  Aptitude  Courses." 

In  the  eighth  grade  at  the  Ethical  Culture  School, 
New  York  City,  a  plan  has  been  adopted  for  offering 
three  semi-elective  courses  which  aim  to  be  prevoca- 
tional or  aptitude  courses.  These  courses  are  known 
as  mechanical,  printing,  and  art-crafts. 

They  are  considered  semi-elective  because  their 
election  is  determined  by  the  cooperative  considerations 
of  the  pupil,  his  teachers,  and  his  parents  and  are  based 
partly  on  his  records  in  the  arts  courses.  The  courses 
are  prevocational  or  aptitude  courses  in  the  sense  that 
they  are  intended  to  serve  as  experiences  that  may  help 
the  students  find  or  verify  so  much  regarding  their  in- 
terests and  aptitudes  as  appears  desirable,  in  order  to 
start  some  thought  of  high  school  courses  of  study  and 
prospective  careers.  For  example,  the  mechanical 
course  is  planned  for  those  (1)  having  some  interest  in 
and  liking  for  machinery  and  a  desire  to  study  and  ex- 
periment along  this  line;  (2)  showing  some  aptitude 
for  mechanical  problems  and  construction;  (3)  desiring 
to  find  out  whether  they  have  or  have  not  any  real  and 
well  founded  liking  and  aptitude  for  mechanical  things. 

An  appreciation  of  what  is  fine  and  admirable  in 
the  art  and  science  of  machinery  is  one  aim.  The  ac- 
quisition of  a  definite  body  of  technical  practices  and 

"Contributed    by    Arthur    W.    Richards,    Director    of   Manual 
Arts,  Ethical  Culture  School,   New  York  City. 

78 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

knowledge  of  elementary  metal  working  processes,  tools, 
and  materials  is  also  intended.  This  course  consists  of 
a  study  of  the  design,  operation,  mechanics,  and  con- 
struction of  some  good  and  industrially  important  me- 
chanical project  such  as  the  steam  engine.  The  general 
nature  of  the  content,  the  organization,  and  the  methods 
of  instruction  in  this  course  are  briefly  as  follows : 

Instruction  cards,  charts,  and  models  used  are: 

1.  Steam  engine  working'  chart. 

2.  Gas-auto  engine  working  chart. 

3.  Operating  steam  engine,  reciprocating  and  turbine. 

4.  Operating  hot  air  engine. 

Outside  study  assigned  on  these  special  topics  with  speci- 
fic references  given  for  each  includes: 

1.  How  the  steam  engine  works. 

2.  Valves. 

3.  Boilers,  types,  flash,  everyday  engineering. 

4.  Types  of  steam  engines. 
Excursions  made  are: 

1.     To  59th  Street  or  other  power  stations. 
Social  content  studies  involve: 

1.  History  of  steam  engine  and  inventors  as  voca- 
cational  inspirational  matter. 

2.  The  industrial  and  social  importance  of  the  steam 
engine. 

3.  Other  power  engines  and  the  future  of  steam 
engines. 

4.  Vocations  based  on  mechanical  work  interest. 
Organization  plan  includes: 

1.  Class  project  to  consist  of  a  lot  of  engines  which 
are  carried  to  point  of  assembling.  Individual  stu- 
dents are  to  assemble,  adjust,  and  finish  one  or 
two  engines  from  the  finished  parts. 

2.  Individuals  (1)  to  be  assigned  lot  part  jobs,  (2) 
given  problems  to  solve,  (3)  assigned  duties 
necessary  to  advance  the  project. 

Methods  of  personal  instruction  are: 

1.     To  be  on  an  individual  problem  or  task  basis. 


INDUSTRIAL    ARTS    AND 

2.  To  have  teacher's  demonstration  on  new,  unknown 
processes  made  largely  to  individuals,  and  class 
lectures  to  be  very  short. 

3.  To  allow  pupil  instruction  to  other  pupils  as  the 
jobs  are  transferred. 

Cabinet   Making   Organized  on  a  Useful  and   Productive 

Basis.1" 

With  the  opening  of  the  Jefferson  Junior-High 
School  at  Rochester,  New  York,  last  February,  certain 
shops  in  the  industrial-arts  department  were  used  dur- 
ing half  of  each  day  for  specific  trade  work,  while  the 
other  half  day  was  reserved  for  the  general  industrial 
arts  work.  One  of  the  shops  thus  dividing  its  time  is 
the  cabinet-making  shop.  This  shop  was  equipped  with 
individual  motor-driven  machines  of  the  most  modern 
type,  in  order  to  do  a  high  grade  of  productive  work. 
The  industrial-arts  courses  were  organized  around  cer- 
tain well  analyzed  projects,  which  involved  the  principal 
machine  and  hand  woodworking  processes  and  opera- 
tions in  their  construction.  All  work  of  both  classes 
was  done. on  group  projects.  The  shop  was  organized 
and  conducted  much  like  a  factory,  with  a  superintend- 
ent and  foreman  and  the  work  routed  through  on  a  pro- 
duction plan.  Each  boy  received  a  daily  assignment  to 
a  job  or  a  machine  but  no  boy  individually  completed  a 
whole  project.  That  is,  the  principle  of  the  division  of 
labor  was  applied  but  it  was  not  carried  to  the  point  of 
exploitation,  as  none  of  the  boys  were  kept  upon  a  par- 


"Contributed    by    Harmon    B.    Wood,    Instructor    at    Jefferson 
Junior-High   School,   Rochester,   New  York. 

80 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

ticular  job  longer  than  was  necessary  in  order  for  them 
to  become  thoroughly  proficient  in  understanding  and 
doing  the  work  involved.  There  was  always  the  finest 
kind  of  interest  in  the  work  on  the  part  of  the  groups. 

During  the  half  year  about  one-fifth  of  the  shop 
time  was  spent  in  oral  group  instruction  on  matters  of 
trade  theory  and  science,  as  well  as  in  discussions  of  the 
problems  which  had  arisen  in  the  shop. 

The  writer  believes  that  this  method  of  organizing 
and  conducting  a  school  shop  maintains  a  better  inter- 
est, gets  more  and  better  work  done,  and  develops  a  finer 
spirit  than  can  be  done  under  the  individual,  complete- 
project  plan,  without  sacrificing  anything  in  the  way  of 
real  instruction.  In  addition,  the  shop  output  is  im- 
mensely increased.  During  the  last  half  of  last  year 
the  output  of  this  shop  included  twelve  teachers'  desks, 
36  drawing  tables,  thirty  pedestals,  sixty  flag  standards, 
twelve  dining-room  tables,  eight  library  tables,  five  40- 
drawer  cabinets,  two  hundred  drawers  for  the  sewing 
classes,  one  flag  case,  two  medicine  cabinets,  and  one 
speaker's  table. 

Practical  Course  in  Electricity. " 
The  course  in   Electricity   offered   in   the   Duluth 
junior-high  schools  was  begun  in  1917.     It  is  presented 
in  the  eighth  grade  for  one  semester  as  a  part  of  the  sys- 
tem  of  rotating   various   subjects   in   the   seventh    and 


^Contributed    by    Tames    A.    Starkweather,    Assistant   Superin- 
tendent of  Schools,   Duluth,  Minnesota. 

81 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS    AND 

eighth  grades  for  the  so-called  prevocational  groups. 
The  buildings  had  very  little  equipment  to  begin  with. 
Practically  all  of  the  wiring  for  circuits  and  for  the  set- 
ting up  of  the  instruments  and  switch  boards  has  been 
done  by  the  boys  in  the  classes.  Some  of  the  equipment 
has  been  made  by  the  students.  Some  has  been  pur- 
chased through  the  junk-man,  and  the  necessary  repairs 
have  been  made  by  the  boys.  The  expense  of  these  shops 
compared  to  the  amount  of  equipment  found  in  them 
is  relatively  very  low. 

This  course  has  been  prepared  in  units,  each  unit 
representing  a  certain  particular  branch  of  the  subject. 
These  units  have  been  placed  on  a  chart  which  shows  the 
correlation  between  electricity  and  the  other  subjects 
which  the  students  take  at  the  same  time.  It  indicates 
the  teaching  units,  the  shop  and  laboratory  work,  the 
electrical  theory,  the  related  science,  the  drawing  and 
sketching,  the  mathematics,  the  spelling  of  terms  used 
in  the  study,  and  something  of  the  history  of  the  inven- 
tions and  discoveries. 

There  has  been  no  subject  offered  in  the  Duluth 
junior-high  schools  which  has  had  a  more  absorbing  in- 
terest for  the  boys.  Students  who  have  shown  excep- 
tional interest  and  ability  in  the  subject  have,  on  the  re- 
commendation of  the  teacher  and  consultation  with  the 
principal,  been  allowed  to  take  on  an  advanced  course  in 

82 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

this  subject  in  the  ninth  year.  In  cases  where  these  boys 
have  been  compelled  to  go  to  work  early,  and  there  have 
been  several  such  cases,  they  have  secured  work  in  the 
electrical  trade  at  good  wages.  One  particular  instance 
is  illustrative  of  this  point.  C.  R.,  who  was  a  student 
in  the  eighth  grade,  was  rather  a  bright  boy,  but,  on  ac- 
count of  the  economic  conditions  in  his  home  life,  he 
found  it  necessary  to  go  to  work.  He  was  an  excellent 
student  in  electricity.  With  some  little  assistance,  he 
was  encouraged  to  remain  through  the  ninth  grade  and 
continue  his  course  while  taking  the  other  subjects.  At 
the  end  of  the  ninth  year  he  left  school  and  immediately 
entered  the  employ  of  an  electrical  firm  at  good  wages. 
He  is  now  occupying  a  responsible  position  in  one  of 
the  leading  electrical  firms  in  Duluth,  at  a  salary  better 
than  that  which  his  teacher  is  receiving.  He  had  pre- 
viously been  rolling  barrels  in  a  lime  kiln  after  school. 

Several  other  boys  who  have  completed  high  school 
have  continued  their  work  in  science  due  to  the  interest 
aroused  in  the  electricity  course.  Many  of  these  boys 
are  entering  the  university  in  the  various  fields  of  en- 
gineering. This  would  not  be  remarkable  were  it  not 
for  the  fact  that  electricity  furnished  the  interest  and 
enthusiasm  for  keeping  these  boys  in  school  during  the 
period  of  adolescence  and  tided  them  over  the  discourag- 
ing time  of  failures  in  English  and  algebra. 

83 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS   AND 
Electrical  Construction  and  Repair."1 

The  course  in  electrical  construction  at  the  Garfield 
junior-high  school,  Bichmond,  Indiana,  had  been  carried 
on  previously  in  lecture  form  almost  entirely.  The  re- 
sults were  not  quite  what  were  wished  and,  therefore,  we 
began  casting  about  for  a  plan  which  would  interest  the 
boys  more  than  this  course  already  had  done.  A  very 
limited  equipment  prohibited  us  from  allowing  the  boys 
to  experiment  with  the  usual  delicate  apparatus  about 
the  shop,  but  yet  we  believed  that  the  boys  of  junior- 
high  school  age  almost  demanded  construction  work 
which  they  could  do  for  themselves.  To  use  what  we 
had  on  hand  would  have  meant  that  quite  soon  every 
piece  of  apparatus  would  have  been  taken  apart,  with  the 
result  that  there  would  then  be  but  a  few  parts  in  work- 
ing order. 

A  way  presented  itself  soon  after  school  started, 
when  a  boy  brought  a  disabled  electric  train  to  school 
and  asked  to  have  it  fixed.  He  was  told  to  choose  some 
boy  from  the  class  to  help  him  and  was  then  given  per- 
mission to  work  on  the  engine  during  the  class  period. 
Other  boys  in  the  class  who  saw  the  two  experimenting 
and  working  together  complained  of  their  lot.  Some 
even  asked  why  they  must  sit  and  listen  to  lectures  while 
two  of  their  number  were  allowed  to  work  on  real  prob- 
lems.    They  were  told  also  to  bring  in  some  work  which 


"Contributed     by     Walter    B.     Miller.     Instructor    at     Garfield 
Junior-High    School,    Richmond.    Indiana. 

84 


PREVOCATIONAL  EDUCATION 
needed  repairing  and  that  they,  too,  might  then  enjoy 
those  same  privileges.  On  the  next  day,  the  shop  was 
transformed  from  a  stiff  electrical  laboratory,  where 
long  lectures  drove  the  boys  to  hating  school,  to  a  prac- 
tical electrical  workshop,  where  groups  of  interested 
hoys,  with  heads  together,  worked  out  the  repairs  for 
broken  toys  which  had  hoen  accumulated  over  night  from 
collars  and  attics  about  the  town.  Of  course,  it  is  need- 
less to  state  that  we  continued  to  work  along  that  line 
for  the  rest  of  the  term.  As  the  repairing  of  toys  played 
out  soon  after  Christmas,  we  asked  the  boys  for  broken 
olectric  irons,  vaccuum  sweepers,  etc.  For  some  time 
the  patrons  of  the  school  hesitated  before  entrusting  the 
hoys  with  their  household  appliances,  but  finally  we  won 
them  over  and  were  kept  busy  calling  for  and  returning 
their  goods.  Unless  some  new  part  had  to  be  bought, 
we  charged  nothing  for  our  work,  and  even  put  a  guaran- 
tee on  it,  which  was  something  the  local  electric  shops 
had  not  done.  We  kept  account  of  the  work,  as  the  repairs 
were  made,  and  the  cash  value  of  the  whole  year's  work 
would  have  been  a  little  over  five  hundred  dollars,  pro- 
vided we  had  charged  the  regular  prices. 

We  usually  had  enough  repairing  to  do  to  supply 
every  boy  with  some  work.  Each  class  was  considered 
as  a  separate  unit  or  shift.  Each  boy  who  was  entrusted 
with  a  job  was  given  a  helper  and  held  responsible  for 

85 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS   AND 

both  job  and  helper.  Over  a  group  of  three  or  four  of 
these  workmen  was  placed  a  foreman,  whose  duty  it  was 
to  help  the  boys  out  of  difficulties  and  instruct  them  ac- 
cording to  the  orders  of  the  general  foreman,  who  was  in 
charge  of  the  whole  class.  The  leaders  soon  began  to 
show  themselves  and,  after  many  adjustments,  were 
placed  where  they  could  help  and  learn  most.  They 
usually  held  foremanship  positions  because  of  their  will- 
ingness to  help  the  boys  on  jobs  which  gave  them  trouble. 
When  the  classes  began,  the  general  foreman  would  have 
received  his  instructions  from  the  teacher  and  would 
have  told  the  tool-room  man  what  new  problems  had 
been  brought  to  the  shop,  to  whom  to  give  them,  where 
to  find  any  new  tools  that  might  be  needed,  and  also 
would  have  announced  the  names  of  those  who  were  to 
be  the  foremen  for  the  day. 

The  work  was  quite  successful  from  the  standpoint 
of  interest,  as  each  boy  had  brought  something  from  his 
home  or  from  the  neighbors  and  had  actually  repaired 
some  machine  or  appliance  concerning  which  he  had 
known  but  little  before.  It  should  also  be  stated  that 
cooperation  with  the  school  wood  shop  made  it  possible 
for  the  boys  to  wire  the  lamps  which  they  had  made. 
One  proof  of  the  interest  was  the  landslide  of  business 
in  electric  toys,  wireless  and  telegraph  instruments,  etc., 
at  the  local  electrical  shops. 

86 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

SUGGESTIVE    TYPES    OF    INDUSTRIAL-ARTS 

PROJECTS  AND  PROBLEMS. 

The  Doll  House  as  a  School  Project.-2 

In  the  Hastings,  N".  Y.,  Schools  there  was  need  for 
a  doll  house  in  the  kindergarten  room.  This  furnished 
a  problem  which  was  taken  rip  as  a  school  project.  Its 
construction  required  many  of  the  different  processes 
and  materials  that  are  necessary  in  the  construction  of 
a  home.  Nothing  is  gained  if  a  project  presents  prob- 
lems which  are  too  simple  or  too  difficult;  or,  in  other 
words,  if  it  contains  no  real  problems  at  all  as  far  as  the 
pupils  are  concerned.  For  this  reason,  in  planning  this 
project,  the  physiological  and  mental  ages  of  the  pupils 
were  considered  and  the  work  was  divided  accordingly. 
The  scheme  of  work  followed  was  as  representative  as 
possible  of  the  actual  construction  of  a  house  in  the  field. 

It  was  a  "community"  project  which  furnished 
work  of  a  practical  nature  and  developed  an  appreciation 
of  cooperation.  It  gave  the  pupils  an  opportunity  to  use 
their  constructive  instincts  and  capacities  in  a  beneficial 
manner.  It  helped  them  to  get  the  habit  of  planning  to 
meet  their  own  needs  and  assisted  in  making  them 
"handy"  about  the  home  and  elsewhere,  as  needs  arise. 
Even  though  the  work  was  divided  among  the  pupils  to 
meet  their  capacities,  as  far  as  the  actual  doing  of  things 
was  concerned,  they  were  always  in  touch  with  the  other 


"Contributed  by  Wm.  H.  Peters,  in  charge  of  industrial  arts. 
Hastings.   New  York. 

87 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS   AND 

processes  going  on  through  observation  and  discussion. 
Thus  they  received  instruction  in  the  industries  from 
which  man  gains  his  material  possessions  and  studied  the 
industries  for  the  sake  of  a  better  perspective  on  man's 
achievements  in  controlling  the  production,  distribution, 
and  consumption  of  the  things  which  constitute  his  ma- 
terial wealth. 

Method  of  Procedure.  This  real  desire  for  a  doll 
house  in  the  kindergarten  room  suggested  the  idea  of 
drawing  a  few  rough  sketches  in  the  way  of  explaining 
what  was  wanted.  From  these  sketches  and  a  few  neces- 
sary suggestions,  two  boys  from  the  mechanical  drawing 
class  took  the  responsibility  of  the  architects,  and  as  a 
part  of  their  work  in  the  class  completed,  after  much 
designing,  plans  for  the  house.  Those  plans  consisted 
of  scale  drawings  of  the  front,  side,  and  rear  elevations 
for  the  first  and  second  floors.  As  in  an  architect's  of- 
fice, tracings  were  made  from  these  drawings  and  finally 
each  boy  in  the  class  made  several  blueprints  from  them, 
so  several  sets  of  plans  were  completed.  The  methods 
used  in  an  architect's  office  were  taken  up  and  a  study 
of  the  vocation  was  made,  thus  giving  the  boys  an  insight 
into  the  field  of  drawing.  Specifications  were  then 
drawn  up  by  the  architects  and  sets  of  these  were  type- 
written by  the  commercial  class. 

After  these  plans  and  specifications  were  first 
checked  up  by  the  eventual  owner,  they  were  given  to 
the  industrial-arts  department,  which  had  agreed  to  take 

88 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

the  general  contract.  Two  boys  from  the  ad  Minced  class 
assumed  the  responsibility  of  general  contractors.  They 
were  checked  up  by  the  architects,  who  saw  that  the  plans 
and  specifications  were  being  fulfilled.     They,  therefore, 


FIGURE  V. 

Several   Group  and   Individual    Projects   Were   Involved   in  the 

Planning,  Construction  and  Furnishing  of  This 

Doll  House  for  the  Kindergarten. 

kept  in  touch  with  each  part  of  the  construction  and 
learned  in  a  practical  way  the  "why"  of  doing  the  vari- 
ous things  involved  in  constructing  the  doll  house 
shown  in  Figure  V. 

There  was  no  real  masonry  work  to  be  done,  as  it 
was  decided  not  practical  in  the  construction  of  a  doll 
house;  however,  the  masonry  was  not  neglected,  as  the 
boys  felt  the  need  for  it  and  suggested  many  schemes  to 

89 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS   AND 


FIGURES   VI   AND   VII. 

The  Upper  and  Lower  Illustrations  Show  an  Individual  Project 

in  Installing  Electric  Lights  and  a  Group  Project 

in  Painting  and   Finishing. 

90 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

work  it  out.  This  led  to  a  discussion  of  the  many 
methods  of  building  foundations  and  chimneys.  The 
proper  proportions  for  mixing  the  ingredients  for  a  con- 
crete floor  were  taken  up  and  the  boys  made  use  of  their 
previous  study  of  concrete,  which  had  consisted  of  a 
study  from  the  rough  rock  from  which  the  cement  is 
manufactured  to  the  finished  product,  the  different 
methods  of  mixing  with  aggregates  in  their  proper  pro- 
portions, and  the  making  of  such  problems  as  bird 
houses,  flower  boxes,  etc.,  which  involved  reinforced  as 
well  as  mass  construction.  In  this  way  and  by  making 
miniature  urns  and  flower  hoxes  out  of  concrete  for  the 
doll  house,  the  boys  got  all  of  the  necessary  principles 
and  a  "taste"  of  the  work  in  concrete. 

The  carpentry  in  the  house  offered  more  chance  for 
actual  work.  There  were  many  details  to  be  looked 
after  and  so  a  carpenter-contractor  was  appointed.  He 
in  turn  picked  several  boys  to  act  as  foremen ;  a  foreman 
for  each  group  that  worked  during  each  of  the  different 
periods.  The  different  groups  or  journeymen  were  held 
responsible  by  the  foreman.  They  in  turn  were  held 
responsible  by  the  carpenter-contractor,  who  was  subject 
to  direction  from  the  general  contractors.  They  were 
checked  up  by  the  architects,  whose  job  it  was  to  see  that 
the  owner's  plans  and  specifications  were  fulfilled.  The 
boys  felt  the  responsibility  of  their  work  and  gave  all 
their  efforts  to  seeing  that  their  part  of  the  job  was  ful- 

91 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS   AND 

filled.  It  was  necessary  for  them  to  read  the  blue-prints 
to  carry  on  their  jobs,  consequently  the  boys  became 
familiar  with  working  drawings. 

Plumbing  and  fixtures  for  the  bath  room  and 
kitchen  were  given  over  to  one  of  the  boys  in  the  sheet 
metal  class.  The  bath-tub  and  most  of  the  other  fix- 
tures were  worked  up  out  of  discarded  tin  cans,  which 
adapted  themselves  very  readily  to  the  shapes  desired 
with  very  little  cutting,  shaping,  and  soldering.  The 
specifications  called  for  electric  lights,  which  a  boy  is 
shown  installing  in  Figure  VI.,  and  an  electric  bell. 
Some  of  the  boys  who  were  taking  the  advanced 
shopwork  were  working  on  electrical  problems  and,  after 
listening  to  several  lectures  given  by  the  teacher  of 
physics,  understood  the  principles  of  electricity  fairly 
well.  But  the  complete  system  of  wiring  a  house  had 
not  as  yet  been  worked  out.  This  afforded  a  very  good 
practical  problem  in  physics,  and  so  plans  and  specifica- 
tions were  given  over  to  the  physics  class.  The  contract 
for  the  painting  and  interior  decorating  was  taken  by 
the  art  classes.  In  Figure  VII  a  group  of  boys  is  shown 
developing  the  plans  for  finishing.  The  work  on  the 
curtains,  and  the  like,  was  likewise  taken  over  by  the  do- 
mestic arts  classes. 

Furniture  for  the  house  was  made  by  the  different 
grades.  Different  grades  furnished  different  rooms. 
They  seemed  to  take  great  interest  in  this  work  and  the 

92 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

contractor,  foreman,  and  journeymen  scheme  worked 
out  very  well.  One  grade  decided  it  would  like  to  make  the 
furniture  for  two  of  the  bed  rooms.  Before  permission 
was  given  to  start,  the  members  of  the  classes  were  asked 
how  they  would  organize  the  work  so  that  they  would 
only  have  the  specified  furniture  when  finished.  After 
a  few  suggestions,  they  decided  that  they  would  carry  on 
a  system  similar  to  methods  used  in  the  industries.  The 
job  was  turned  over  to  them.  The  class  president  took 
the  floor  and  a  meeting  was  called  to  order.  There  were 
nominations  and  a  contractor  was  elected  as.  also  were 
two  foremen.  The  rest  were  the  journeymen,  and  they 
were  divided  in  two  groups  by  the  foremen.  Each  fore- 
man and  his  group  took  opposite  sides  of  the  shop,  while 
the  contractor  took  the  responsibility  of  the  whole  affair, 
leaving  the  instructor  with  very  little  to  do.  Another 
class  took  the  contract  for  the  making  of  the  furniture 
in  the  living  room,  and  worked  out  their  ideas  with  the 
help  of  their  class  teacher.  The  manufacturing  of  the 
trim  for  the  house  was  another  problem,  and  it  was  taken 
by  another  grade  which  worked  a  factory  system  scheme. 
Visits  were  made  to  factories  and  their  systems  noted. 

The  actual  cost  of  the  material  used  in  the  house 
was  taken  up  as  a  practical  problem  in  arithmetic.  It 
included  the  finding  of  the  number  of  board  feet,  and  the 
making  out  of  the  bill  of  material.  The  wood  of  which 
it  was  constructed  was  studied  in  the  science,  geography, 

93 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS   AND 

and  industrial-arts  classes  by  tracing  the  story  of  the 
lumber  used  from  the  seed  to  the  finished  board.  The 
English  class  made  very  good  oral  reports  on  the  project 
and  also  wrote  an  interesting  account  of  it.  In  follow- 
ing the  above  scheme,  nearly  every  department  and  pupil 
was  represented  as  having  some  important  part  to  play 
in  the  project.     .. 

Projects  in.  Concrete  Construction.23 
When  School  Number  22  at  Buffalo,  New  York, 
purchased  a  universal  saw  and  motor  with  the  proceeds 
of  candy,  ice  cream,  and  paper  sales,  the  boys  in  the 
ninth  grade  manual-arts  claes  undertook  the  erection 
of  a  suitable  base  for  the  new  motor.  Heretofore  their 
work  had  been  principally  in  wood  and  iron,  so  the  con- 
struction of  the  necessary  forms  was  a  relatively  simple 
matter.  However,  sand,  gravel,  and  cement  having  been 
provided,  the  boys  donned  their  overalls  and  jumpers 
and  began  to  mix  concrete  in  a  workmanlike  manner. 
When  the  mixture  reached  the  proper  consistency,  it  was 
poured  into  forms  that  the  boys  had  made,  fastened  by 
the  approved  method,  inspected,  passed,  and,  in  due 
time,  utilized  for  the  installation  of  the  new  motor. 
Since  then,  the  motor  has  been  in  constant  use  and  the 
concrete  base  is  standing  up  under  this  test  so  as  to 
prove  that  the  boys'  work  compares  favorably  with  that 
of  any  contractor. 


"Contributed   by   Carl   R.   Kraus,   Instructor   at  Public   School 
Number  22,   Buffalo,   New  York. 

94 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

After  this  initial  success,  there  was  naturally  no 
abatement  of  enthusiasm  when  the  lads  began  their  next 
project;  especially  as  its  objective  was  turning  a  muddy 
back  yard  into  a  real  playground.  A  handball  court 
was  the  first  unit  of  construction.  Mixing  the  concrete, 
laying  the  foundation  course,  applying  a  finishing  coat, 
and  marking  it  properly  improved  the  understanding 
and  technique  of  the  youthful  builders  and  provided 
School  Number  22  with  a  royal  battle  ground  for  many 
a  hard  fought  game  of  handball. 

Next  in  order  of  time  and  of  difficulty  was  the  mak- 
ing of  a  basketball  court.  The  boys  laid  this  job  out 
carefully  according  to  accurate  measurements,  for  which 
they  were  held  responsible,  dug  holes,  and  mixed  and 
poured  the  concrete,  in  which  they  set  necessary  posts 
for  the  baskets.  Laying  out  a  baseball  diamond,  mak- 
ing forms,  and  pouring  concrete  for  bases  followed  as  a 
matter  of  course.  This  work  was  performed  with  as 
much  zeal  as  are  the  baseball  games  it  made  possible. 

Designed  originally  to  apply  in  the  solution  of  prac- 
tical problems  in  industrial-arts  instruction  for  ninth 
grade  boys,  the  work  in  concrete  has  been  a  source  of  real 
pleasure,  as  well  as  profit.  Without  exception,  every 
boy  has  been  impressed  with  the  necessity  for  absolute 
accuracy,  has  had  awakened  within  him  a  love  for  real 
labor,  has  seen  opening  before  him  the  doorway  to  a 
wider  knowledge  of  industry,  and  has  felt  the  satisfac- 
tion that  comes  from  achievement. 


INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  AND 
Model  Building  Construction  Projects.24 

On  account  of  the  extensive  local  building  at  East 
Orange,  New  Jersey,  we  felt  that  our  boys  in  school 
should  receive  a  solid  foundation  in  the  theory  and  prac- 
tice of  building  construction.  Through  the  close  cor- 
relation of  our  drafting  department,  we  were  able  to  se- 
cure plans  and  specifications  of  simple  buildings,  such 
as  garages,  bungalows,  and  dwelling  houses  of  the  aver- 
age type. 

The  automobile  garage  was  featured  through  this 
project,  and  we  were  able  to  work  into  shop  foremanship 
and  group  arrangement  witli  marked  success.  The 
garages  were  built  of  wood,  with  concrete  floors  and 
catch  basins,  framed  and  finished  to  comply  with  the 
building  laws  of  New  Jersey.  The  scale  used  was  l1/^ 
inches  to  the  foot.  In  some  instances  gray  cardboard 
was  substituted  for  wood  in  shingling,  as  it  well  repre- 
sented slate  and  was  much  easier  to  handle. 

Model   Garage  Construction  Projects.25 

A  class  of  eighteen  eighth  grade  boys  at  the  Burnet 
S  t  reet  School,  Newark,  New  Jersey,  undertook  the  build- 
ing of  model  garages  as  their  projects  for  the  intensive 
five-week  cycle  of  shopwork.  The  models  were  of  frame 
construction,  being  made  to  one-eighth  the  size  of  an 
actual  garage.     They  were   18   inches  wide,   30   inches 


^Contributed  by  Ernest  W.  Tuttle,  Director  of  Practical  Arts 
at  East  Orange.   New  Jersey. 

^Contributed  by  Arthur  T.  Giblin,  Instructor  in  the  Burnet 
Street  School,   Newark,   New  Jersey. 

96 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

long,  and  12  inches  from  sill  to  plate,  the  pitch  of  the 
roof  being  one-third.  Six  garages  were  planned  and 
completed. 

This  class  was  divided  into  groups  of  three,  one 
boy  in  each  group  acting  as  foreman.  He  was  held  re- 
sponsible for  the  quality  of  workmanship  on  his  model 
and  the  completion  of  the  work  within  the  specified  time. 
The  other  two  boys  worked  under  his  direction.  These 
boys  showed  great  interest  in  the  making  of  the  project, 
and  there  was  much  competition  between  the  groups. 
Talks  on  timber  used  in  construction;  proper  sizes  of 
sills,  plates,  studding  and  rafters;  window  framing; 
garage  door  building;  and  the  use  of  the  steel  square 
helped  to  enliven  the  work. 

The  art  department  of  the  school  was  consulted  as 
to  the  color  combinations  best  suited  for  painting  the 
garages.  At  this  time,  the  subjects  of  ingredients  neces- 
sary for  making  good  paint ;  the  methods  of  mixing  and 
application  of  the  same  were  taken  up.  The  boys  of  the 
several  groups  mixed  and  applied  the  paint  to  their  par- 
ticular models,  as  each  one  was  painted  according  to  a 
different  color  scheme. 

As  the  school  is  located  in  the  heart  of  a  zone  where 
much  building  construction  is  carried  on,  several  visits 
were  made  to  construction  jobs  in  the  vicinity.  These 
trips  were  followed  by  discussions  of  working  conditions 
in  the  building  trades,  wages,  hours  of  labor,  and  also 
the  city's  building  code.     The  garages,  which  were  sold 

97 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS   AND 

to  members  of  the  class  at  a  price  covering  the  cost  of 
the  materials  used,  were  of  such  a  size  as  to  make  them 
desirable  for  doll,  dog,  or  rabbit  houses,  as  well  as  studies 
in  frame  construction. 

Ballot  Boxes  and  Folding  Booths  as  Community 

Projects.26 

Teachers  of  industrial  arts  are  beginning  to  see  that 
many  of  the  school  projects  which  have  been  developed 
in  their  shops  have  had  little  practical  application  and 
vital  connection  with  community  life.  Community  pro- 
jects and  problems  should  constitute  a  relatively  large 
portion  of  the  school  curriculum.  It  is  just  as  cultural, 
and  far  more  beneficial,  to  choose  some  of  the  great  prob- 
lems of  the  community  with  which  to  teach  students 
through  typical  projects  how  to  investigate  and  find  out 
a  solution  to  some  of  the  things  with  which  they  must 
come  in  daily  contact. 

Since  women  have  the  right  of  suffrage,  it  follows 
that  they  should  receive  careful  instruction  in  the  art 
of  voting;  but  it  is  also  essential  that  boys  and  girls  of 
secondary  school  age  should  receive  this  instruction,  as 
the  responsibilities  and  burdens  of  the  government  will 
eventually  fall  upon  their  shoulders. 

Ballot  boxes  and  folding  booths  similar  to  those 
shown  in  Figure  VIII  are  necessities  in  an  election  in 
many  communities  and  are,  therefore,  purchased  from 


26Contributed    by     Koy     S.     Ray,     Instructor    at    Shelbyville, 
Indiana. 

98 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 


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INDUSTRIAL    ARTS    AND 

time  to  lime.  No  better  projects  for  introducing  the 
study  of  government  could  be  made  in  the  school  shops 
than  these  two  types  of  construction.  County  commis- 
sioners at  Shelby  ville,  Indiana,  are  willing  to  buy  those 
which  are  satisfactorily  made,  and,  in  many  cases,  even 
offer  encouragement  by  placing  large  orders  valued  from 
$100.00  to  $256.00.  While  this  is  an  excellent  kind  of 
community  project,  it  also  is  one  of  the  means  of  instill- 
ing real  "Americanism"  into  public  school  work. 

Making   and   Operating   Radio   Instruments.27 

In  planning  the  work  for  classes  in  this  all-year  al- 
ternating school  at  Newark,  New  Jersey,  it  became  evi- 
dent that  new  problems  should  be  introduced  and  that 
some  medium  other  than  wood  must  be  used,  as  the  ma- 
jority of  boys  entering  the  upper  grades  had  made  all  of 
the  models  and  pieces  that  could  be  constructed  of  wood 
in  the  elementary  school  shops.  Radio  telegraphy  has 
been  introduced  very  successfully  in  the  eighth  grade. 
The  boys  in  this  study  of  "wireless",  as  it  is  popularly 
known,  soon  grasp  the  fundamentals  of  radio  operating. 
They  study  the  code  at  home,  practicing  and  reviewing 
it  each  period  for  ten  minutes.  It  is  remarkable  how 
quickly  they  master  the  key  in  transmitting  messages. 
During  the  course  they  make  mechanical  drawings  of  the 
instruments  to  be  constructed  and  also  draw  several 
plates  of  radio  symbols. 


"Contributed  by  George  F.  Bowne,  Instructor  In  the  Lafayette 
School,   Newark.   New   Jersey. 

100 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

The  making  of  radio  instruments  brings  a  new  ma- 
terial, metal,  to  these  boys.  The  boring,  filing,  grind- 
ing, and  polishing  of  the  brass  parts  used  in  the  construc- 
tion demand  absolute  accuracy.  The  wooden  parts  are 
all  squared  and  shaped,  and  then  stained  mahogany, 
after  which  these  are  varnished  and  rubbed.  The 
mahogany  finish  gives  a  very  pleasing  result  with  the 
polished  brass. 

Several  types  of  mineral  detectors  are  made  by  the 
pupils.  The  brass  strips  are  bent,  soldered,  and  assem- 
bled ;  the  threads  are  cut  and  the  holes  are  tapped ;  while 
the  knobs  are  cut  and  shaped  from  dowels.  Two  kinds 
of  condensers  used  in  radio  telegraphy  are  assembled. 
One  is  of  tin-foil  and  waxed-paper  for  the  receiving  sets, 
and  the  other  of  tin-foil  and  French-glass  for  the  trans- 
mitting sets.  Each  condenser  is  enclosed  in  wood. 
Tuning  coils  and  loose  couplers  of  various  sizes  are 
wound  on  card-board  tubing.  This  requires  skill  and 
patience.  Some  boys  assemble  their  models  on  base 
boards,  others  use  panels,  and  still  others  make  up  their 
sets  in  units.  All  instruments  are  tested  and  must  func- 
tion before  they  leave  the  shop. 

During  the  construction  of  these  models  the  theory 
and  practice  of  transmitting  and  receiving  radio  mes- 
sages go  on.  At  the  end  of  the  term  the  boy  is  capable 
of  operating  his  own  station.  By  thus  varying  the 
models  and  materials  throughout  the  course,  we  hold 

101 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS    AND 

the  interest  of  the  boy,  avoid  the  monotony  of  repetition, 
and  secure  results  that  have  a  commercial  as  well  as  an 
educational  value. 

Model  Motor-Boat  Building  Projects.'8 
The  little  water  crafts  which  were  made  in  the  Hill- 
side junior-high  school  at  Montclair,  New  Jersey,  ranged 
in  size  from  24  inches  to  36  inches,  and  were  very  popu- 
lar at  the  annual  Montclair  Boat  Kaces  that  were  held 
last  June.  Each  boat  was  trued  up  so  that  its  lines  were 
very  much  like  the  large  boats,  which  were  approxim- 
mately  seventy-five  feet  long.  They  were  all  provided 
with  the  details  and  finish  or  equipment  that  go  to  make 
model-boating  a  source  of  real  pleasure  and  recreation. 

About  one-half  of  the  school  year  was  taken  up  in 
completing  either  type  made,  but,  nevertheless,  they  were 
worked  out  at  a  commercial  profit  to  the  builder.  The 
boys  received  a  great  many  kinds  of  shop  activity,  such 
as  soldering,  the  use  of  taps  and  dies,  working  in  sheet 
metal,  and  doing  many  operations  with  wood-working 
tools.  A  small  electric  motor  is  recommended  for  these 
motor  boats.  It  should  weigh  not  more  than  15  ounces, 
measure  only  about  three  and  one-fourth  inches,  and 
be  equipped  with  a  reverse  switch.  The  motor  should 
be  well  designed,  both  electrically  and  mechanically,  and 
wound  for  battery  current  only.  It  is  suggested  that  the 
motor  should  be  made  with  field  pieces  of  good  wrought 

'"Contributed   by  John  W.  Cavileer,  Instructor  at  Junior-High 
School,  Montclair,   New  Jersey.  . 

102 


PREVOCATIONAL    EDUCATION 

metal;  that  the  armatures  he  constructed  of  charcoal 
irons,  laminated  and  well  balanced;  and  that  the  brushes 
be  made  adjustable.  When  completed,  the  speed  of  these 
boats  varies  from  six  to  ten  miles  an  hour. 

In  connection  with  these  boat  studies,  essays  and 
descriptions  were  written  in  the  English  class;  the  cost 
of  materials  was  calculated  in  the  mathematics  depart- 
ment; the  shipping  problems  were  discussed  in  the  geo- 
graphy class;  the  art  classes  made  sketches  for  several 
posters  and  also  a  design  for  the  front  of  the  school 
paper ;  while  the  print  shop  printed  the  necessary  posters, 
schedules,  and  programs  for  the  races. 

The  annual  races  held  by  the  public  schools  are  very 
popular  and  have  been  growing  more  and  more  each  year. 
Last  year  nearly  200  boats  of  all  types  took  part.  Gold, 
silver,  and  bronze  medals  were  given  for  workmanship, 
as  well  as  for  speed.  Several  cups  were  also  given  by 
friends  of  the  school  system. 

Teaching  Cooking  to  Boys  and  Furniture  Construction  to 

Girls. 

An  interesting  experiment  was  tried  in  the  Abing- 
ton  Avenue  School  at  Newark,  New  Jersey,  during  the 
past  summer.  For  a  portion  of  the  term,  girls  and  boys 
interchanged  their  special  activities;  that  is,  the  boys 
took  cooking  while  the  girls  went  to  the  shop.  As  this 
is  an  all-year  and  alternating-class  school,  opportunity 


^Contributed  by  Melvin  E.  Barnes,  Instructor  in  the  Abington 
Avenue   School,    Newark,    New  Jersey. 

103 


INDUSTRIAL   ARTS   AND 

is  given  for  a  greater  development  of  special  subjects 
than  is  possible  in  the  old  type  of  school,  although  all 
subjects  are  handled  on  a  try-out  or  prevocational  basis. 

This  is  one  of  the  few  Newark  schools  where  garden- 
ing is  continued  with  war-time  fervor,  and  the  garden 
is  one  of  the  reasons  for  the  boys'  cooking  class.  Pro- 
ducts of  the  cultivated  lot  always  have  been  used  for 
demonstration  purposes  in  the  girls'  cooking  classes,  and 
it  was  found  that  this  increased  their  zeal  in  both  de- 
partments. Lessons  on  food  values  with  practical 
demonstrations  in  the  preparation  of  vegetables,  it  was 
thought,  would  increase  the  boys'  interest  in  gardening. 
No  attempt  was  made  to  give  the  detailed  course  in  do- 
mestic science,  as  it  is  organized  for  the  girls,  but  the 
groups  of  boys  on  whom  the  short  series  of  cooking  les- 
sons was  tried  learned  some  basic  facts  of  food  values 
and  some  methods  that  may  prove  valuable  on  camp  out- 
ings. 

Home-makers  are  often  required  to  give  first-aid 
to  damaged  furniture,  and  knowledge  of  how  to  drive 
nails  straight  might  be  listed  with  the  household  arts. 
The  girls,  who  had  exchanged  classes  with  the  boys, 
learned  some  first  principles  of  wood  working.  Because 
ike  Abington  Avenue  School  is  on  the  alternating  or 
modified  Gary  plan,  both  of  these  courses  as  given  regu- 
larly are  very  extensive.  The  girls  are  thoroughly  in- 
structed in  canning  and  preserving,  as  well  as  in  pre- 
paring fresh  foods. 

104 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


AUG  4     1932 


DEC  2  7  1954  - 


*1 


jut  a  -  ia& 


*   » 


-  . 


RUT  2 


E 


Form  L-9-35m-8,'28 


LB 
159H- 

£..234 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 

i  in  ii  mi  in  ii  mi  1 111  mi  ii  ii  i  null!  r 


II   llll  I  III  llll    II II  I  null 

AA    000  647  789    7 


ERN  BRANCH 

V  OP  CALIFORNIA, 

IBRARY, 

"■-LtS.  CALIF. 


